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7 

PRIMER  OF  BOTANY. 


BY 

Mes.  a.  a.  knight, 

Robinson  Seminary,  Exeter,  New  Hampshire. 


3>^C 


BOSTON: 
GINN  AND  COMPANY. 

1887. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1887,  by 

GINN  AND  COMPANT, 
in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  "Washington. 


Electrottted  by  J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.,  Bostok. 


(^ 


PREFACE. 


The  one  actual  expense  about  the  use  of  the  Primer 
will  be  a  compound  microscope. 

The  lessons  may  often  prove  unduly  long  for  the  capac- 
ity of  the  class  or  for  the  length  of  the  recitation  period. 
One  lesson  may  furnish  material  for  three  or  four  succes- 
sive recitations.  This  matter  of  adjustment  must  be  left 
to  individual  cases.  There  are  many  ungraded  schools 
in  which  the  present  number  of  classes  resolutely 
forbids  any  fixed  number  of  minutes  for  this  sort  of 
general  and  accomplishing  instruction  which  every  earnest 
teacher  greatly  desires  to  give.  In  such  a  j^erplexity,  the 
Primer  can  be  taken  up  daily  for  a  few  moments  before 
the  morning  recess,  with  the  understanding  that  the 
examination  of  the  specimen  may  be  continued  through 
that  brief  respite  if  any  or  all  desire  to  spend  it  about  the 
microscope.  It  may  be  objected  that  both  teacher  and 
pupils  are  extremely  in  need  of  the  "temporary  suspension 
of  hostilities,"  and  that  it  is  best  for  both  to  part  company 
for  a  few  minutes.  There  is  much  truth  in  the  objection, 
and  if  any  better  time  can  be  found  for  the  exercise,  no 
teacher  ought  to  spend  a  recess  over  botany.  If  no  other 
arrangement  can  be  made,  she  will  have  the  consolation  of 
knowing  that  the  heaviest  part  of  the  wear  and  strain  of 
nerve  will  be  borne  by  herself  instead  of  her  charges ;  and 


iv  PREFACE. 

as  in  this  case  the  matter  will  narrow  to  the  question 
whether  she  is  willing  to  "die  daily  — a  little"  for  the 
furtherance  of  her  work,  or  to  assert  her  claims  of  personal 
ease  at  its  expense,  this  employment  of  the  odds  and  ends 
of  school  hours  must  be  necessarily  left  to  the  individual 
worker. 

Other  teachers  may  feel,  too,  that  the  Primer  strikes 
ambitiously  into  profound  depths  unsuited  to  small,  un- 
reasoning minds,  as  if  one  should  read  Spencer  in  the 
nursery.  The  truth,  however,  will  generally  bear  telling. 
It  is  an  injustice  to  the  childish  intellect  to  teach  it  botany 
superficially,  and  it  is  a  strange  error  to  encourage  it  — 
by  silence  about  other  series  of  facts,  at  any  rate — to 
consider  the  complex  plants  we  see  about  us  as  the  im- 
portant whole  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  and  to  relegate 
the  families  of  blights,  rusts,  smuts,  and  moulds  to  a  limbo 
of  uncertainties  and  insignificance. 

The  writer  begs  the  teacher  who  tries  this  Primer  to 
believe  that  the  system  of  tests  and  reviews  and  the  selec- 
tion of  materials  are  not  considered  finalities  of  arrange- 
ments. The  aim  of  this  work  is  to  be  suggestive.  In 
most  cases  the  practical  studies  can  be  bases  of  original 
outlining.  The  material  used  has  been  taken  from  text- 
books designed  for  older  pupils,  and  has  been  simplified  to 
bring  botany  into  the  reach  of  primary  grades. 

The  writer  feels  much  indebted  to  Professor  Charles  E. 
Bessey,  of  the  University  of  Nebraska,  for  matter  taken 
from  his  "  Essentials  of  Botany,"  and  for  his  painstaking 
examination  of  the  manuscript  of  this  Primer.  Principal 
G.  N.  Cross,  of  Robinson  Seminary,  Exeter,  N.H.,  has 
kindly  furnished  an  appendix,  upon  the  cost  and  care  of 
microscopes. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE   PLANT. 

PAGE 

A.  What  the  Living  Part  of  a  Plant  is 1 

B.  About  Green  Protoplasm 3 

C.  Starch                5 

D.  The  Plant  Cell 7 

E.  Sap 8 

Review  (Oral  and  Written)      .......  10 

CHAPTER  n. 

TISSUES. 

A.  A  Plant  Tissue c        .  13 

B.  Soft  Tissue .  14 

C.  Stony  Tissue ...  16 

D.  Fibrous  Tissue .  17 

E.  Milk  Tissue 18 

Review 20 

CHAPTER  in. 

TISSUE    SYSTEMS. 

A.  Why  Every  System  is  made  up  of  Groups       .        .        .        .22 

B.  The  Boundary  System .        .24 


Vi  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

C.  More  about  the  Boundary  System 27 

D.  Hairs 29 

E.  Breathing-Pores 31 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Supportixg  System 33 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE    FUNDAMENTAL    SYSTEM. 

A.  Materials 38 

B.  Spaces  between  Cells 40 

Review  (Oral  and  Written) 44 

CHAPTER  VI. 

THE   PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS. 

A.  Water  in  the  Plant 48 

B.  "NA^ater  in  Protoplasm  and  in  Cell-Walls 50 

C.  Disturbance  of  Water  in  the  Plant 53 

D.  Evaporation 55 

E.  Movement  of  Water  in  the  Plant 57 

CHAPTER  VII. 

MORE    ABOUT    THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS. 

A.  Plant  Food 62 

B.  How  Food  circulates  in  a  Plant .65 

C.  Another  Lesson  about  Starch 68 

D.  Use  of  Reserve  Material 70 

E.  Temperature 73 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS.  VU 
CHAPTER  VIII. 

MORE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS. 

PAGE 

A.  Light 80 

B.  ^Movements  of  Plants 82 

C.  More  about  the  Movements  of  Plants 86 

Questions  for  Review  (Oral  and  Written)     .        .        ,        .  90 

CHAPTER  IX. 

THE   PLANT    BODY. 

A.  The  Plant  Body .  94 

B.  Stems ,         .        .         c        .  97 

C.  Leaves     ..,.,,...        o        .  100 

D.  Roots      .........        o        .  103 

CHAPTER  X. 

THE   LIFE   AND   THE   HOME   OF   PLANTS. 

A.  How  long  Plants  live 105 

B.  Where  Plants  may  live .110 


APPENDIX 113 


CHAPTER   I. 

THE  PLANT. 


A. 

WHAT  THE  LIVING  PART   OF  A   PLANT  IS. 

[);^^  The  teacher  should  provide  herself  with  plants  in  pots  in- 
stead of  cut  flowers. 

Name  a  plant ;  as,  a  pink.  a 

Point  in  the  direction  of  it.     Where  is  it?         \ 

How  large  is  it?  Yeast  Plant. 

How  would  you  know  it  from  another  plant?  f-  ceii-waii. 

'^  *^  0.  cell-contents, 

State  something:  about,  —  ^f '^^  "  proto- 

o  '  plasm." 

c.  clear  space  in  the 

a  Illy,       a  rose,       a  tree,       a  root.  protoplasm. 

Note  to  Teacher.  —  Getting  acquainted  with  a  plant.  Make  a 
thin  slice  of  verbena  stem,  (a)  What  is  this?  Put  it  under  the 
microscope,  (h)  What  is  it  now?  (c)  In  what  are  the  drops  of 
pulp  lying? 

The  furniture  of  your  sitting-room  lies  inside  the  ivalls  of 

the  room.     Islarids  lie  in  the  sea. 
The  soft,  clear  drops  of  verbena  lie  in  their  thin  ivalls. 

What  is  the  living  part  of  a  plant  ? 

I.    Soft,  transparent  drops  of  protoplasm  are  the  livingr 
part  of  a  plant. 


JIf.  C  Stat*  C^W*^ 


2  A   PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

Tell  me  where  protoplasm  is  found  in, — 

rootlets,         branches,         foliage,         fruit. 
(Teacher  must  test  this  by  cuttings  from  various  specimens.) 

II.  Protoplasm  is  found  everywhere  in  a  living  plant. 

In  order  to  live,  we  must  have  something  to  eat,  for 
food  builds  bones  and  makes  blood. 

Protoplasm  gets  food  from  water.  Protoplasm  makes 
room  for  its  food,  and  stores  it  up  in  small,  clear  drops, 
like  tears. 

Practical  Work.  —  Make  very  thin  slices  of  tender 
asparagus.  Use  the  J  objective.  Note  the  drops  of  food. 
Stain  some  slices  with  red  ink.  Use  glycerine  upon  others. 
The  ink  stains  the  protoplasm ;  glycerine  withdraws  the 
water  from  it.  See  the  protoplasm  wither  and  collapse. 
Collapse^  by  the  way,  means  falling  together  in  a  formless 
manner. 

III.  Protoplasm  can  cliang-e  its  position  and  its  form. 

It  moA  es  most  easily  and  stores  food  best  when 
it  is  warm. 

Test  I. 

"  Cut  a  bit  of  verbena  stem  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave 
the  marginal  hairs  intact.  Examine  in  water  at  86°  Fahr. 
for  a  motion  of  protoplasm  in  the  hairs.  Transfer  the 
stem  to  a  block  of  ice,  and  notice  how  entirely  the  move- 
ment ceases.     Warm  again." 

1.  Learn  to  pronounce,  spell,  and  write  the  word  proto- 
plasm. ''Protoplasm''  means  the  first  thing  which  is 
made. 


THE    PLANT.  6 

2.    Use  the  word  protoplasm  correctly  to  show,  — 

the  composition  of  a  stem ;  a  leaf. 

how  plants  eat. 

how  they  move  about. 

Read  these  groups  of  words,  and  copy  every  name  of 
something  made  of  protoplasm  ;  — 

1.  Leaves  are  such  common  things  that  we  do  not  think 

how  beautiful  they  are. 

2.  Snow  is  feathery  and  cold. 

3.  You  have  disturbed  the  level. 

4.  Flowers  are  of  all  shapes. 

5.  A  cistern  full  of  water. 

6.  The  white  flower  is  fragrant. 

7.  Onions  are  buds. 

8.  The  pebble  is  smooth. 

9.  Close  your  eyes. 

10.    The  grains  from  which  our  bread  is  made  are  seeds. 

Read  the  list  of  names  of  things  made  of  protoplasm. 


B. 

ABOUT  GREEN  PROTOPLASM. 
Has  protoplasm  a  color  ? 

Protoplasm  is  colorless,  but  it  can  make  a  color,  and 
dye  all  or  a  part  of  itself. 

Some  parts  of  the  protoplasm  in  a  tiny  plant  are  bright 
green^  stained  so  by  a  green  dye  made  in  them. 


4  A   PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

Protoplasm  does  not  readily  make  this  dye  in  the  darh^ 
and  even  the  made  dye  fades  out  in  long-continued 
darkness.  That  is  why  plants  grown  in  the  dark  are 
sickly  and  wan. 

Give  an  example  of  a  plant  containing  but  little  green  dye. 

A.  This  dye  is  called  cliloropliyll.  A  cliloropliyll  grain 
is  a  drop  of  stained  protoplasm,  and  chlorophyll 
is  the  staining  dye. 


a 


Write  a  statement  about,  — 

a  bit  of  blanched  celery.  ^      ^ 

a  bit  of  unblanched  celery.  ^^    ^ 


B.    Chlorophyll    draws    the    proto-  p^,^,,  scum. 

plasm    AVhich     it     treats    into     One  of  the  loivest  plants  hav- 
ing leaf  color. 


lumps    or    into    star-shaped     a.  ceiiwaii. 

p.  protoplasm, 
grains.  s.  space  in  the  protoplasm. 

d.  dividing  walls. 
/I  7      7     7  '77  ,  .7  ^'  "6^'  cells- 

C.   Alcohol   Will   separate  protoplasm 

and  chlorophyll.  Whe7i  moss  leaves  are  soaked  in 
alcohol^  the  chlorophyll  leaves  the  cells  and  stains 
the  liquor.  You  can  turyi  the  ivhitened  drops  of 
protoplas77i  hrown  hy  taking  the  trouble  to  add  iodine 
to  the  alcohol. 

Bring  to  school  potato  stems  grown  in  the  dark.    Compare 
them  with  potato  stems  grown  in  the  light. 


THE   PLANT. 


STARCH. 


Make  a  statement  about  starch. 

What  word  in  the  statement  names  a  food  ?     Write  that 

word  on  the  board. 
Write  the  name  of  an  article  of  food  containing  starch. 

How  do  you  suppose  the  starch  came  in  it? 
Why,  do  you  suppose,  a  plant  stores   up   cupboards  of 

starch  ? 

IV.  Starch  is  a  plant  food.  It  is  made  in  light,  and 
the  plant  lives  upon  it  in  darkness.  It  can  be 
made  in  chlorophyll  grains  only. 

Test  I. 
Tell,  in  five  short  statements,  — 

one  thing  that  is  in  a  grain  of  wheat, 
one  thing  that  is  in  a  kernel  of  corn, 
one  thing  that  is  in  a  slice  of  potato, 
one  thing  that  is  in  a  grain  of  oatmeal, 
something  in  rice. 

Write  the  five  statements. 

Caution.  —  Sometimes  more  starch  is  made  than  the  plant 
can  use.  It  is  put  away  in  cells  for  the  future ; 
thus,  in  autumn,  apple  twigs  contain  starch  in  cells 
of  the  pith. 

Test  II. 
Examine    under   the    microscope  a  very  thin   slice    of 
potato.     You  will  see  egg-shaped  starch  grains.     Soak  the 


6 


A    PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 


slice  in  red  ink,  and  the  protoplasm  which  imbeds  the 
starch  will  appear  plainly. 
Write  a  statement  about,  — 

(1)  leaves  that  have  been  in  the  light  many  hours. 

(2)  leaves  that  have  grown  in  the  dark. 

(3)  cells  of  wheat. 

(4)  potatoes. 

(5)  protoplasm. 

(a)  In   each   statement   underline    the 

words  which  mean  plant  food. 
(5)  Make  a  list  of  plants  which  store 

up  much  starch. 
(c)   Note  with  the  microscope  whether 

potato  cells  or  Indian  corn  cells 

have  more  starch. 
(c?)  Put  a  drop  of  iodine  upon  a  slice 

of  potato.    The  starch  grains  will 

turn  blue.     Write  the  use  of  starch;  where  it  is 

found ;   whether  protoplasm   is   its   bed ;    whether 

starch  is  manufactured  in  colorless  protoplasm. 

Mount  threads  of  pond  scum  previously  exposed  to  sun- 
light. Write  the  names  of  the  substances  seen  in 
the  cells  of  the  pond  scum. 

Substances  are  matters  whicJi  occupy  space. 

Write  five  statements  about  the  substances. 

In  each  statement  underline  the  words  which  mean  plant 

food. 
Write  a  direction  for  bringing  out  starch  grains  vividly. 
Write  the  color  which  they  will  become. 


Green  Mould  on  Bread 

(magnified). 

a.  cell-wall. 
p.  protoplasm. 


THE   PLANT. 

See, — 

that  every  statement  is  correctly  spelled, 
that  you  know  clearly  the  word  substances. 
that  no  mistake  about  a  fact  has  been  made. 

O;^^  Oral  exercise  concerning  errors. 


D. 

THE  PLANT  CELL. 

1.  Mount  the  following  :  — 

a  leaf  of  moss. 

green  slime  scraped  from  a  damp  wall. 

a  drop  of  putrid  water. 

2.  How  is  the  protoplasm  of  the  moss  leaf  found? 
The  protoplasm  of  a  moss  leaf  is  found  in  little  boxes. 

3.  What  is  each  box  called  ? 
Protoplasm  boxes  are  called  cells. 

4.  Tell  how  protoplasm  is  found  in, — 

green  slime,       an  apple  twig,       stems  of  corn. 

Sometimes  single  cells  or  plants  float  alone ;  as,  bacteria 
in  the  drop  of  water. 

More  often,  the  cells  or  plants  are  found  together,  in  a 
great  company ;  as,  green  slime. 

Most  often,  cell-walls  thicken  as  plants  grow  old,  as  in 
a  lily  stem. 


8  A   PRIMER   OF    BOTANY. 

A  cell  full  of  2?rofoplasm  is  a  j^lctnt. 

V.  Cell-Avalls  are  made  by  protoplasm,  much  as  the 
snail  makes  his  shell. 

-  The  cell-walls  press  upon  each  other  very  much. 

Test. 
Describe,  by  mounted  specimens,  the  cell-walls  and  con- 
tents of,  — 

a  lengthwise  section  of  corn  stem, 

the  section  of  apple  twig, 
green  slime. 

Note.  —  A  few  plants  have  no  cell-walls,  or  very  thin  and 
poor  ones.  Yellowish  masses  of  slime  mould  are 
handfuls  of  naked  protoplasm,  without  houses  to 
live  in.     Slime  moulds  are  the  lowest  plants. 

1.  Name  a  plant  which  is  a  single  cell. 

2.  Name  a  plant  without  cell- walls. 


E. 

SAP. 

Apply  your  handkerchief  to  a  section  of  freshly  cut  fleshy 
stem.     Make  a  statement  about  the  result. 

What  word  tells  what  has  moistened  the  linen?  Write 
that  word  on  the  board. 

Use  the  word  sap  instead  of  the  word  water.  Taste  a 
bit  of  sugar  cane  or  the  sap  of  sugar  maples. 


THE    PLANT.  9 

How  does  the  water  in  these  plants  differ  from  drinking- 
w^ater  ? 

VI.    The  water  in  a  plant  is  called  sap. 


Exercise. 
Tellin  five  short  statements, — 

one  fact  about  the  sap  of  the  sugar  maple. 

one  fact  about  the  sap  of  a  squash  plant.* 

one  fact  about  the  sap  of  a  cherry. 

what  you  can  taste  in  corn  stalks. 

what  you  can  see  if  you  slice  a  sunflower  stalk. 

VII.  Sap  holds  all  the  nn cooked  food  AAhich  the  plant 

drinks  from  the  air  and  the  soil. 

VIII.  Sap  is  the  cupboard  where  the  plant  stores  its 
cooked  food. 

Mount  for  examination  fresh  and  wilted  stems.      Make 
statements  about,  — 

(a)  the  water  in  the  fresh  stems. 

(^)  the  size  of  the  fresh  stems. 

(t?)  the  size  of  the  Avilted  stems. 

(c?)  the  sap  in  a  wilted  stem. 

(e)  some  stem  Avhich  you  have  seen  wilt. 

All  parts  of  a  cell  are  steeped  in  sap. 

*  Note  to  Teacher.  —  "We  misuse  the  term  vine  a  great  deal. 
Vine,  from  vinicm.  The  vine  is  the  wine  plant,  the  grape  plant.  Usage, 
it  is  true,  sanctions  the  use  of  vine  for  squashes,  peas,  morning  glories, 
etc.,  but  for  all  that  it  is  a  bad  usar/e."  —  Bessey. 


10  A   PKIMER   OF   BOTANY. 

Examine  these  parts  of  plants :  — 

(1)  a  rose  leaf,  (6)  branches, 

(2)  a  cell  wall,  (7)  seed, 

(3)  roots,  (8)  buds, 

(4)  rootlets,  (9)  an  apple, 

(5)  stems,  (10)  flowers. 

Copy  every  word  which  denotes  something  saturated  with 

sap. 
All  these  things  are  groups  of  protoplasm.     Protoplasm 

is  saturated  with  sap,  and  contains  drops  of  it. 

Review. 

OKAI.. 

1.  Tell   (rt)   what  the  living  part  of  a  plant  is ;  (?>)  the 

name  of  green-stained  protoplasm ;  ((?)  where  starch 
is  found;  (c?)  what  starch  is;  (e)  the  name  of  the 
box  which  holds  protoplasm ;  (/)  the  name  of  the 
cell  substance;  ((7)  the  name  of  the  water  which 
saturates  the  cell. 

2.  Name  a  substance  dissolved  in  cell  sap. 

3.  Read  these  words,  and  tell  of  what  each  is  the  name :  — 

protoplasm,         chlorophyll,         plant  cell. 

4.  Give  an  example  of, — 

a  thin  cell-wall, 
thickened  cell-walls, 
cell-walls  extremely  thickened. 

5.  Name  a  plant  without  cell-walls. 

6.  What  effect  has  warmth  on  protoplasm  ?   Give  examples. 


THE    PLANT.  11 

7.  Describe  a  plant. 

8.  Explain  the  growth  of  a  ]:)lant. 

TVRITTEN. 

1.  Write  a  word  which  is  the  name  of,  — 

a  cell-box,         the  dye  found  in  some  cells. 

2.  Write  the  name  of  the  living  part  of  a  plant. 

3.  Write  its  name  when  stained  green. 

4.  Write  two  properties  which  it  possesses. 

5.  State  on  the  board  how  a  living  plant  gets  food. 

6.  Describe  in  a  written  statement  the  cell  sap  of,  — 

cane,  a  geranium,  a  beet. 

OR 

1.  Give,  — 

the  names  of  three  plants  containing  starch, 
how  we  know  they  hold  starch. 

2.  Explain  the  experiment  Avith  a  slice  of  potato. 

3.  Tell,— 

why  the  plant  stores  starch. 

when  it  stores  it. 

when  it  uses  it. 

when  it  is  impossible  for  a  plant  to  store  starch. 

4.  Can  protoplasm  stain  itself? 

5.  What  is  the  dye  called? 

6.  What  is  the  stained  protoplasm  called  ? 

7.  How  is  the  stained  protoplasm  found? 

8.  What  agent  will  separate  protoplasm  and  its  dye  ? 

9.  Explain  a  difference  between,  — 

a  potato  stem  grown  in  darkness, 

a  stem  of  the  same  grown  in  the  liglit. 


12  A    PPJMER    OF    BOTANY. 

10.    State  two  facts  about  blanched  celery. 

Find  the  sajD  in  a  section  of  geranium. 

1.  In  what  parts  of  the  plant  cell  is  sap  found  ? 

Cell  sap  i^enetrates  every  part  of  the  cell  and  the  cell-ivalls. 

2.  What  does  the  sap  hold  dissolved  ? 

The  sap  holds  all  the  food  which  protoplasm  needs.  Sap 
is  stored  m  drops  in  the  protop)las7ii. 

3.  Give  facts  about,  — 

corn  silk,  pollen  grains,  nut  shells, 

verbena  stem,  bacteria,  an  apple  twig, 

slime  moulds,  a  potato,  a  grape, 

pond  scum.  blanched  celery,  a  dahlia, 

a  stamen,  moss  leaves, 

4.  Prove,  by  tasting,  the  presence  of  sugar  in  three  plants. 

Write  the  names  upon  the  board. 

Note.  —  Acids  can  be  detected  by  applying  blue  litmus 
paper  to  mounted  specimens.  Acids  will  turn  the 
paper  red. 


CHAPTER  II. 

TISSUES. 


A. 

A  PLANT  TISSUE. 

A  plant  cell  may  live  alone. 

Plant  cells  usually  live  together  in  groups. 


(D     00 

e         ^  « 

a.  two  cells  scarcely  touching. 
6.  two  cells  pressed  together. 

c.  cells  placed  side  by  side,  and  pressure  exerted  at  both  ends  of  the  series. 

d.  cells  pressed  together  from  all  sides. 

Tell  whether  the   following  plant  cells  live  singly  or  in 

groups :  — 

Indian  corn,  geranium,  moss. 

A  group  of  plant  cells  is  called  a  plant  tissue. 

How  can  you  tell  a  tissue  ? 

Find  among  your  specimens  two  groups  of  plant  cells. 

Describe  a  plant  tissue. 

I.    In  very  simple   plants  the  cells   are  all   alike,  and 
such  plants  have  but  one  kind  of  tissue. 


14  A    PKIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

IL    Higher  plants   slioAV  differences ;   and  the  differ- 
ences are  many  in  elaborate  plants. 
III.    The  most  important  tissnes*  are   (1)  soft  tissue; 
(2)   fibrous  tissue;    (3)   stony  tissue;    (4)   milk 
tissue. 


SOFT  TISSUE. 

Cells  having  tliin^  coloi^less  ivcdls  com'pose  soft  tissue ;  as^ 
the  central  part  of  a  stem  of  Indian  corn  is  made  of 
soft  tissue. 

Soft  tissue  is  seen  in  the  c/reenpulp  of  leaves; 
thus,  — 


the  soft  part  of  a  leaf  is  of  soft  tissue,   s^ 
pulpy  sea  plants  are  of  soft  tissue. 

,         .  •        1        p   n         •  ^****  Tissue. 

Name  the  tissue  seen  in  the  lollowing :  — 

the  centre  of  a  flower  stem,  fleshy  leaves, 

spaces  between  leaf  veinlets,  the  flesh  of  a  sepal, 

interspaces  of  a  squash  leaf,  pond  scum, 

the  parts  of  a  rose  petal,  a  moss  leaf, 

the  surface  of  a  cactus  bract,  yeast  plants. 

Many  loiv  j^lants  are  mere  bundles  of  soft  tissue. 


*  There  is  an  admixture  of  less  abundant  tissues,  not  touched  upon 
in  this  book. 


TISSUES. 


15 


2.  Mount  the  following,   and   mention   (a)   the   sort   of 

tissue  they  display;  (6)  the  shape  and  arrangement 
of  the  cells  :  — 

a  drop  of  yeast,  grape  mildew, 

centre  of  a  slice  of  potato,  wheat  rust, 

green  slime,  water  mould, 

a  broad  moss  leaf,*  kelp. 

IV.    Soft  tissue  is  found  in  the  g^reen  parts  and  in  the 
growing"  parts  of  plants. 

3.  Name,  spell,  and  use  correctly  the 

tissue  found  in,  — 

the  green  cells  of  an  apple  leaf. 

the  centre  of  a  stem  of  sweet 
brier. 

the  centre  of  a  green  corn  stalk. 

a  cross-section  of  growing  root- 
let. 

the  pulp  of  a  cherry. 

4.  What    is    soft    tissue?       Where 

found  ? 


Cup  Moss. 


Soft  tissue  is  the  most  abundant  and  impoi'tant  tissue  in 
the  vegetable  hi7igdo7n. 

5.    Mention  five  examples  of  soft  tissue. 


*  The  moss  leaf  is  usually  a  single  layer  of  cells.     Elongated  cells 
form  the  midrib.     The  whole  is  of  soft  tissue. 


16  A   PRIMER   OF   BOTANY. 

c. 

STONY  TISSUE. 

A  slice  of  cocoanut  shell  is  hard  as  rock. 
The  seed  coat  of  a  peach  is  so  hard  that  it  is  called  a 
stone. 

The  seed  coat  of  an  apple  is  tough. 

1.  Read  the  above  sentences ;  tell  what  is  said  in  each  of 

the  tissue  of  the  part  described ;  notice  that  all 
these  parts  are  seed  coats ;  see  if  you  can  give  the 
hard  tissue  a  name. 

2.  Think  of  two  other  seed  coats  that  are  thick  and  hard. 

Tell  whether  they  appear  to  contain  chlorophyll. 

V.    Tissue  which  is  made  of  cells  with  greatly  thickened 
walls  is  called  stony  tissue. 

In  the  jnth  of  apple  twigs  the  stony  tissue  co7itains  starch. 

Test. 
Name  the  tissue  of  the  following  examples :  — 

(1)  walnut  shells. 

(2)  a  slice  of  hickory-nut  shell. 

(3)  the  coat  of  a  melon  seed. 

(4)  coats  of  cucumber  and  squash  seeds. 

(5)  the  pith  of  a  twig. 

(6)  a  cherry  stone. 

Copy  from  some  book  five  names  which  recall  stony  tissue. 
Use  three  of  these  words  in  sentences,  and  describe  tlie 
tissue. 


TISSUES.  17 

Supply  words  in  the  following :  — 

(a)  Starch  is  found  in  the of , 

(6)   We  find  stony  tissue  in ,  and ,  and . 


D. 

FIBKOUS   TISSUE. 

VI.  Fibrous  tissue  is   made   of  cells   that   have   been 

pinched  and  flattened  by  tissues  near  by. 

XoTE  TO  Teacher.  —  Tear  off  a  thin  piece  of  split  maple  twig, 
and  mount  in  water.     The  torn  surface  will  show  wood  fibres. 

Write  on  the  board  the  shape  of  the  fibres. 
What  are  the  groups  of  cells  called  ? 

VII.  Fibrous   tissue   is   found    in    woody    bundles.     It 

gives  strength  to  stems  and  leaves. 

Write  the  composition  of  fibrous  tissue. 

Write  two  examples. 

Write  the  shape  of  the  fibres  of  each. 

Note  to  Teacher.  —  Mount  cross-sections  of  various  woods, 
and  point  out  differences  in  the  amount  of  fibrous  tissue. 

There  are  two  sorts  of  fibrous  tissue,  thick-walled  and 
thin-walled.  Thick-walled  fibrous  tissue  is  called  Bast; 
thin-walled  is  called  Wood.  The  fibres  of  bast  are  longer 
and  more  pliant  than  those  of  wood. 

Both  sorts  exist  in  the  same  twig.  When  you  are 
making  lengthwise  sections  for  mounting,  you  can  see  the 


18  A    PKIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

great  length  of  bast  fibres  by  cutting  through  one  of  the 
bundles  of  this  sort  of  tissue.  Bast  bundles  can  be  told 
by  their  whiteness. 

Test. 

1.  Make  a  statement  about,  — 

(a)  a  section  of  oak  log. 
(6)   an  apple  branch, 
(c?)    a  maple  twig. 

(d)  branches  of  willow. 

^    ^  1        p  1  TTood  and  Bast 

(e)  the  trunk  oi  an  elm.  Tissues. 

2.  Underline  the  names  of  tissues  in  the  following  sen- 

tences: — 

(a)  Fibrous  tissue  is  made  of  long,  thick-Avalled  cells. 
(b')   Branches  of  trees  are  twisted  into  different  shapes 

b}^  white,  finger-like  fibres, 
(c)   Such   fibres   are   bast  bundles.      They   are  more 

flexible  than  those  of  wood, 
(c^)  Soft  tissue  and  fibrous  tissue   make   plants,   and 

stony  tissue  protects  plant  food. 

3.  Describe  soft  tissue,  stony  tissue,  and  fibrous  tissue. 


E. 

MILK   TISSUE. 

Some  plants  (as  lettuce^  milkiveed^  the  poppy^  the  dandelion) 

exude  fluid  resembling  milk. 
Such  plants  contain  milk  tissue. 


TISSUES.  19 

1.  Mention  an  example  of  milk  tissue,   and   locate   the 

plant.     Give  its  time  of  flowering. 

2.  Read  the  following  sentences,  and  mark  the  mentions 

of  milk  tissue :  — 

We  squeeze  opium  from  the  tubes  of  the  pcpp3\ 

This  system  of  tubes  is  found  in  stems,  leaves,  and 

roots. 
The  peculiar  juice  of  the  plant  may  be  white,  yellow, 

red,  or  turbid. 
Milk  vessels  can  hold  caoutchouc  and  resin. 

The  colored  juice  is  called  Latex. 

3.  Use  a  word  that  expresses  the  color  of  the  juice  of,  — 

a  popp}',  the  celandine, 

a  dandelion,  bloodroot. 

4.  Speak  the  right  name  of  the  milky  juice  of  plants  and 

mention  a  plant  possessing  it. 

Note  to  Teacher.  —  Examine  a  drop  of  latex  under  the  micro- 
scope by  transmitted  light.  White  latex  will  appear  brown.  Let  the 
entire  class  thoroughly  examine  the  specimen,  and  mark  the  difference 
in  the  effects  of  transmitted  and  reflected  light. 

5.  Use  the  word  for,  — 

the  real  color  of  the  juice  of  milkweed, 
the  shape  of  the  cups  Avhich  hold  it. 
the  name  of  this  juice. 

T^vo  Forms  of  Milk  Tissue. 

Milk  tissue  may  be  made  up  of  thick-walled,  branching 
tubes. 

Milk  tissue  is  often  a  group  of  thin-walled,  branching 
tubes. 


20  A   PRIMER    OF   BOTANY. 

Mount  for  study  a  stem  of  Euphorbia. 

Find  the  thick-walled  tissue  of  the  stem. 

Speak  the  name  of  this  tissue.     Define  the  words  thieh- 

ivalled,    thin-walled,    and   hranching   as   applied   to 

tissue.     All  are  descriptive  of  what  tissue  ? 
Write  in  one  statement  all  that  is  said  of  milk  tissue  in 

the  two  statements. 
Mount  fur  study  a  stem  of  lettuce. 
How  is  milk  tissue  formed  here?* 
Are  the  walls  regularly  shaped  ? 
Make  a  statement  describing  this  second   form   of  milk 

tissue. 

Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following:  — 

(r<)  The  milk  tissue  of  Euphorbia  is and . 

(h)   The  shape  of  the  milk  cells  is ,  and  the  cells 

are in  outline. 

VIII.  Thick-walled  milk  tissue  sometimes  replaces  bast. 

When  latex  is  eva2:)orated,  there  is  a  sticky  7'esidue, 

Review. 

1.  Define  a  plant  tissue. 

2.  When  do  cells  begin  to  show  differences  ?     What  re- 

sults ?     Name  four  tissues. 

3.  Give  the  most  abundant  tissue. 

4.  Describe  a  moss  leaf.     Locate  soft  tissue  in  a  stem  of 


0. 


geranium. 
Name  the  tissue  of  cocoanut  shells. 


6.    Give  three  examples  of  fibrous  tissue.     Tell  its  use. 
*  Lead  the  class  to  see  that  it  is  made  by  fusion  of  cells. 


TISSUES.  21 

7.  How  can  bast  buiKlles  be  recognized? 

8.  Define  latex. 

9.  Give  two  general  forms  of  milk  tissue. 
10.  Write  an  example  of  each. 


CHAPTER   III. 

TISSUE  SYSTEMS. 


A. 

WHY   EVERY   SYSTEM   IS   MADE  UP  OF   GROUPS. 

Groups  of  cells  may  become  a  boundary  tissue  system. 

Other  groups  of  stony  tissue  or  fibrous  tissue  draw  to- 
gether as  a  supporting  tissue  system. 

Groups  of  soft  tissue  may  be  pressed  into  tubes  as  a 
conducting  tissue  system. 

The  plant  which  Ave  see,  feel,  and  enjoy  is  the  result  of 
this  division  of  work  among  the  tissues. 

Tell  what  is  stated  about,  — 

a  boundary  tissue  system, 
groups  of  fibrous  tissue, 
conducting  tissue  systems. 

Of  what  is  every  tissue  system  made  up  ? 
I.    Every  tissue  system  is  made  up  of  groups. 

How  does  a  tissue  system  form  itself? 

II.    Pressure    and    other    conditions    of    growth    cause 
tissue  systems. 

How  many  chief  tissue  systems? 


TISSUE    SYSTEMS.  23 

III.  Three,  —  the  Boundary,  the  Supporting-,  and  the 
Fundamental  Systems. 

Exercise  I. 

1.  Write  three  statements  about  tissue  systems. 

Examples.  —  Tissue  systems  are  not  found  in  the  lowest 
pLants.  Division  into  tissues  is  constantly  attempted 
in  plant  life,  and  is  accomplished  where  there  is 
power  to  match  ambition. 

2.  Copy  the  following :  — 

Tissue  systems  appear  as  plants  become  complex. 
They  reach  their  fullest  development  in  the  most  com- 
plex plants. 

Exercise  II. 

ORAL   AND  AVKITTEN. 

1.  Use  stony   tissue,  fibrous    tissue,   and  soft   tissue  in   a 

statement  about,  — 

the  boundary  system, 
the  supporting  system, 
the  fundamental  system. 

2.  Locate  the  three  tissue  systems  in, — 

a  cross-section  of  cabbage  leaf, 
a  stem  of  Indian  corn. 

3.  Tell  what  you  think  is  the  nse  of  each  system. 
Write  these  0])inions  upon  slates  or  blackboards.* 

*  To  avoid  mistakes,  promote  a  short  conversation  about  the  uses 
ami  names  of  the  tissue  systems. 


24 


A   PRIMEK    OF    BOTANY. 


THE   BOUNDARY   SYSTEM. 

(a)  The  bouiidaiy  system  is  the  simplest  tissue  system. 

It  is  the  plant's  glove. 
(Z))   It  is  the  first  system  discovered  in  the  upward  scale 

of  plant  life, 
(c)    It  is  the  first  to  appear  in 

the  individual  plant. 
{d)  In  plants  of  low  type  it  can 

scarcely  be  seen, 
(e)   Examination    detects   it,    in 

such    plants,  by  its  dark, 

small,  and  crowded  cells. 
(/)  The    boundary     system     of 

fungi   can   be   lifted  from 

the  mass  beneath  it. 
((/)  In  higlier  plants  it  is  sharply 

separated  from  other  sys- 
tems. 


Hair  Moss. 


Name  the  system  of  tissues  mentioned  in  every  statement. 

What  facts  are  given  in  the  statements  marked  (?>),  (c), 
and  (f?)  ? 

How  is  the  system  told  in  plants  of  low  type  ?  In  such 
plants  is  it  developed  or  in  process  of  formation  ? 

Read  the  statements  marked  (/)  and  (^) ;  tell  whether 
the  boundary  system  is  developed  in  fungi. 

Read  («),  and  give  a  reason  for  the  fact.  Read  the  suc- 
cessive statements,  and  explahi  their  meaning. 

Make  a   statement   defining  the  condition   of  the   boun- 


If.  C.  Staff  ^""•''WS 


TISSUE    SYSTEMS. 


25 


dary  system  in  the  different  ranks  of  plant  life ; 
make  another,  stating  its  office. 

Since  the  houndary  system  of  tissues  is  the  first  to  he  de- 
veloped, it  lies  171  a  77iass 
of  thin-walled  p7'otoplasm^ 
ready  to  he  thickened  and 
modified  ifito  the  skin  of 
the  pla7it. 

IV.  The  boundary  tissue  sys- 
tem is  the  simplest  and 
earliest  result  of  plant 
groAvth. 
V.  It  is  divided  into  skin, 
hairs,  and  breathing- 
pores. 

Test. 

ORAI.. 

1.  Give  the  meaning  of  the  words  houndary  systeon. 

Caution.  —  Remeinher  that  all  tissues  are  pushed  out  from 
the  growing  points  of  plants,  and  that  many  circum- 
stances comhine  to  press  and  perfect  houndary  tissue 
to  he  the  planfs  glove. 

2.  Examine  stems  and  leaves,  and  give  three  qualities  of 

boundary  tissue. 

3.  Tell  which  cells  of  the  plant  become  modified  in  this  way. 

4.  What  degree  of  change  into  boundary  tissue  is  needed 

in  the  case  of,  — 

a  mullein  leaf ?         live-forever?      mildew? 

a  blade  of  grass  ?       fungus  ?  water  mould  ? 


Club  Moss. 


26  A   PRIMEK    OF    BOTANY. 

WRITTEN. 

1.  Write  two  statements  about  the  formation  of  boundary 

tissue. 

2.  Write  a  statement  about  its  position  in  the  plant. 

3.  Write  three  statements  describing  its  position  in  dif- 

ferent phuits. 

4.  Write  a  statement  about  its  use. 

5.  Write  a  statement  about  the  boundary  tissue  of  fungus. 

Fill  the  blanks,  in  the  following,  with  words  that  will 
complete  statements  about  the  boundary  system :  — 

The does  not  exist  in  the  youngest  parts  of 

plants. 

with  their  growth. 

protects  the from  the . 


In  plants  of  lower  types  it  is  made  up  of  - 

and cells. 

Such  cells  are  very  like  the mass. 

They  readily and for  their  office  as 

Many  low  plants  have  absolutely  no 


The of  a  rose  leaf  is  a  proof  of  plant  develop- 
ment. 

The  higher  the  plant,  the  more  thoroughly  protective 
is  its . 

The  atmosphere  and  protoplasm  and boun- 
dary tissues. 

Write  a  list  of  adjectives  suitably  descriptive  of  the 
boundary  tissue  system.* 

Thorough  Review,  with  Practice. 

*  The  teacher  must  examine  the  lists  sharply,  note  errors,  and 
make  tliem  the  basis  of  a  review. 


TISSUE    SYSTEMS.  27 

C. 

MORE   ABOUT  THE   BOUNDARY   SYSTEM. 

The  Skin. 

THINGS   TO   KEMEMBER. 

A  skill  is  made  of  cells  modified  by  (1)  cliang-e  of  form, 
(2)  thickened  walls,  (3)  loss  of  protoplasm.  All 
these  changes  may  be  very  slight. 

Cells  may  change  their  form  but  not  thicken  their 
walls  in, — 

(1)  large  aquatic  plants. 

(2)  land  plants  living  in  shade. 

The  cells  thicken  their  Avails  without  chang-ing  shape 
in, — 

(1)  land  plants  which  grow  very  uniformly. 

(2)  plants  bred  in  very  dry  air. 

Thickening  of  cell-walls  destroys  protoplasm. 
Skins  of  plants   living  in   Avater   or  growing   in  damp 
earth  retain  some  protoplasm. 

1.  Name  the  outer  tissue  of  a  cabbage  leaf,  and  tell  of 
what  it  is  made.  Name  the  tissue  of  another  leaf 
made  of  the  same. 

Changes  in  the  form  of  skin-cells  is  due  to  the  mode 
of  growth  of  the  plant.  If  the  plant  grows 
alternately  tall  and  broad,  the  cells  'are  ex- 
tended and  flattened. 


28  A   PKIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

If  the  growth  is  mainly  in  one  direction,  the  cells  are 
not  irregular ;  as  in,  — 

grass  blades,     the  leaf  of  Indian  corn,     the  grains. 

VI.    The  true  skin  is  one  layer  of  cells. 
VII.    The  outer  part  of  the  thickened  cell-walls  often 
separates  into  a  continuous,  safe  wrap  around 
this  layer.     This  wrap  is  called  the  cuticle. 

For  various  reasons,  the  skin  may  split  into  many  layers. 
This  is  true  of  the  oleander  and  cactus. 

Test  I. 

Make  cross-sections  of  a  cabbage  leaf,  and  mount  with 
care.  Note  the  thickened  cell-walls.  The  outer  skin 
upon  our  bodies  is  very  like  the  thickened  and  separable 
cuticle  of  the  plant. 

Mount  and  examine  the  skin  uj^on  a  leaf  of,  — 

oleander,         holly,  mullein,         petunia, 

cactus,  milkweed,     verbena,        geranium. 

Describe  the  material  of  the  skin  of  each. 

Test  II. 

1.  Mention  a  plant  skin  that  is  made  of, — 

{a)  regular  cells. 

(li)   irregular  cells. 

(c)   cells  full  of  protoplasm. 

(d^  thin-walled  cells. 

(e)    thick-walled  cells. 

(/)  more  than  one  layer  of  cell  tissue. 

2.  How  many  of  these  names  are  of  aquatic  plants? 


TISSUE    SYSTEMS.  29 

Test  III. 

Write  five  names  of  plants  near  3^oitr  home. 

Name   their  tissue  system  which  you  see  and  touch;  its 

parts;  its  most  important  part;  the  composition  of 

this  part;  decide  whether  its  cells  are  regular  in 

each  plant. 
Make  three  statements  about  («)  a  cactus,  (/>)  geranium, 

(6^)  kelp. 
What  is  the  boundary  system?  the  skin? 
Mount  a  bit  of  cactus.      Treat  the  cuticle  with  iodine. 

It  will  turn  yellow,  and  can  be  easily  told  from  true 

skin. 
Examine  the  bloom  of  fruits  and  leaves.     Mount,  and  note 

that  it  is  a  waxy  matter  developed  upon  the  cuticle. 


HAIRS. 
Mount  for  examination,  — 

hairs  of  1  P^*""'''^- 

(  verbenas. 

mullein  hairs. 

a  root  with  root-hairs. 

glandular  hairs*  in  different  stages  of  development. 

VIII.   Hairs  are  extensions  of  the  cells  of  the  true  skin. 

They  at  first  protrude  but  little. 

They  lengthen,  and  sometimes  become  branched. 

*  Hairs  secretin^'  some  substance. 


30  A    PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

Hairs  are  very  import a7it  upon  young  roots^  tuJiere  they 
are  called  root-hairs.  Their  ivalls  are  so  delicate  that 
they  absorb  2^l(^'iit  food. 

Describe  each  mounted  specimen,  telling  («)  the  degree 

of  cell  extension,  (/>)  if  the  hair  is  glandular,   (c^) 

whether  it  is  simple  or  branched. 
Give,  from  memor}',  three  examples  of  root-hairs;    three 

of  variously  branched  hairs. 
Think  of  a  reason  for  the  secretion  furnished  by  glandular 

hairs. 
Give  an  especial  use  of  root-hairs. 
Put  upon  the  blackboard  a  statement  of  the  material  of 

skin-hairs. 
Give   in   two  statements,   from  mounted   specimens,    the 

progress  of  development  of  glandular  hairs. 

A  root-hair  is  a  single  cell. 

Place  under  the  slide  and  describe  the  appearance  of  a 
hair  upon,  — 

the  root  of  a  seedling  maple, 
a  root  of  geranium, 
a  section  of  beet  root, 
roots  of  Indian  corn. 

Examine  the  entire  root  of  an  annual,  and  decide  upon 
tvhat  imrt  of  the  root  the  root-hairs  are  found.  Are 
the  old  or  fresh  root-hairs  most  absorptive  ? 


TISSUE    SYSTEMS.  SI 

E. 

BREATHING-PORES. 

Our  skin  lias  been  called  the  third  lung-,  becavise  we 
exhale  and  absorb  by  it.  This  is  done  by  pores 
upon  skin  surfaces. 

The  presence  of  these  pores  is  proved  by  accidents. 
If  a  certain  proportion  of  them  is  destroyed 
by  burns,  scalds,  or  skin  diseases,  death  re- 
sults. 

The  plant  has  breathing-  pores,  also.  They  are  of  im- 
portance to  its  life. 

IX.  Breathing-pores  are  slits  in  the  skin.  The  slits 
are  guarded  by  special  chlorophyll-stained 
cells. 
They  are  found  upon  aerial  leaves  and  stems  very 
abundantly;  upon  underground  leaves  and 
stems  less  abundantly ;  and  upon  true  roots 
never. 

Mount  a  cross-section  of  cabbage  leaf.  Look  for  breathing- 
pores.     Examine  leaves  of  the, — 

red  clover,  pea,  Indian  corn, 

sunflower,  thorn  apple,        iris. 

Which  surface  of  the  leaf  possesses  the  most  breathing- 
pores  ? 

The  lOAver  surface. 

Are  there  none  upon  the  upper  surface  ? 
Breathing--pores  are  often  confined  to  the  lower. 


cherry, 

apple. 

hop. 

jDluni, 

lily, 

box. 

32  A    PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

1.  Read  the  names  of  these  leaves  ;  find  specimens,  and 

tell  whether  they  possess  breathing-pores  on  both 
surfaces :  — 

black  walnut, 

lilac, 

sycamore, 

X.  Sometimes  the  chlorophyll  cells  shrink  and  curve 
away  from  the  slit  called  a  pore.  The  air  then 
passes  freely  to  the  inner  structures. 

2.  Write  five  names  of  aerial  leaves,  and  the  surface  on 

which  breathing-pores  are  most  numerous. 

3.  Use  the  term  hreathiyig-pores  correctly  in  a  statement 

containing  (ct)  an  aerial  leaf,   (K)  an  underground 
stem,  (c)  a  root. 

4.  Write   the  name  of  a  leaf  which  has  breathing-pores 

upon  both  surfaces. 

5.  Write  a  statement  defining  a  hreathing-pore. 

6.  Write  statements  in  which  you  use  correctly,  — 

boundary  system,  hairs,  pores, 

chlorophyll  cells,  skin,  tissue  group, 

tissue  system. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  SUPPORTING  SYSTEM. 

DiEECTiONS.  —  Break  a  stem  of  door-yard  plantain,  and 
note  the  tough  strings  of  supporting  tissue  which 
run  through  the  soft  tissues.  The  bundles  may  be 
readily  pulled  out. 

1.  What  is  found  in  higher  plants? 

Portions  of  interior  tissue  leng-tlien  into  bundles  which 
penetrate  the  other  tissues. 

2.  What  is  the  name  of  these  strengthening  bundles  ? 
Supporting-  tissue. 

3.  Give  its  composition. 
Fibrous  and  soft  tissues. 

Caution.  —  The  amount  of  soft  tissue  varies^  and  there  is 
a7i  admixture  of  less  ahunda7it  tissues,  of  doubtful 
interest  to pririiary  classes* 

Test  I. 

Describe  the  supporting  system  of  the  plantain  leaf  and 
stalk. 

*  See  page  14. 


34  A    PKIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

A.  In  many  ^^Z^wfs,  snpporting  tissues  may  be  as  readily 

separated  as  is  that  of  the  p)lantain.  They  are  tough 
and  strong^  and  divide  quickly  from  more  yielding 
portions  of  the  plant  body. 

B.  The  leaf  determines  the  supporting  tissue^  ivhich  is  often 

left  as  a  lace-like  framework  by  beetles^  caterp)iUars^ 
and  many  grubs,  tvho  like  the  soft  chlorophyll  tissue 
which  pads  and  fills  out  this  little  skeleton. 

C.  If  you  will  notice  about  the  framework  of  your  hand  or 

your  foot,  you  will  see  that  the  leaf  and  the  stem,  and 
the  paints  of  the  flower,  and  the  tissites  of  fruit,  are 
strengthened  and  held  in  proper  shape  by  supporting 
tissue,  very  much  as  the  systems  of  tiny  bones  witJiin 
your  flesh  keep  your  hand  a7id  foot  from  being  limp 
and  shapeless. 

Use  these  items  in  statements  about  supporting  tissue  :  — 

fibrous  tissue,     chlorophyll  tissue,     leaf,     stem. 

Study  the  bundles  of  asparagus.  Write  a  statement 
defining  their  texture,  and  their  use  in  the  plant 
body.  Study  a  section  of  corn  stalk,  and  describe 
accurately  the  position  of  the  supporting  system  of 
tissues.  Note  if  it  be  tougher  than  in  asparagus, 
and  give  a  reason. 

Examine  the  framework  of  a  leaf,  and  tell  (1)  why  the 
tissue  branches  so  much,  (2)  why  it  is  so  firm  and 
strong,  (3)  whether  soft  or  fibrous  tissue  must  be 
more  abundant  to  give  this  toughness.  Give  the 
material  of  fibrous  tissue. 

Look  over  your  written  work  and  tell,  — 

(a)  the  chief  materials  of  supporting  tissue. 


THE    SUPPORTING    SYSTEM.  35 

(b)   where  supporting  tissue  is  found. 
((?)   its  appearance  in  a  plantain  leaf, 
((i)  what  usually  pads  supporting  tissue. 
(e)   where  it  is  found  in  the  plant  structure. 

Test  II. 

1.  Is  the  supporting  system  always  as  plain   as   in   the 

plantain  ? 

In  many  plants  its  limits  are  vague,  and  can  hardly  be 
told  from  the  inside  tissues. 

2.  Give  the  material  of  the  supporting  system. 

From  the  central  tissues  is  pushed  a  sheath  of  narrow, 
long',  thin-walled  cells.  This  develops  a  padding 
of  soft  tissue,  and  outside  this  padding  appears 
a  zone  of  fibrous  tissue.  Around  all,  a  layer  of 
starch-bearing  cells  is  packed.  This  finishes  the 
"  bundle." 

3.  Study  the  stem  of  red  clover,  and  point  out,  — 

the  jzone  of  thin-walled  cells, 
the  layer  of  soft  tissue. 
the  fibrous  tissue, 
the  outside  sheath. 

The  young  himdles  found  in  the  uppe?'  joints  will  be  most 
i7iteresting .  Those  of  the  loiver  joints  will  display 
very  much  jihrous  tissue. 

4.  Write  a  statement  about  the  "  bundle  "  of  supporting 

tissue  in  the  stem   of  ground-pine,  or  of  lycopo- 
dium. 


36  A   PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

Test  III. 

1.  Name  all  the  parts  of  a  supporting  tissue,  and  tell  what 

part  comes  next  to  the  boundary  system. 

2.  What  do  the  parts  of  the  supporting  system  make  ? 

I.    The  supporting  tissues  form  wood  and  bark. 

3.  Turn  to  the  stem  of  red  clover,  and  statf   the  position 

of  each  part  of  the  supporting  system.  Do  the  same 
with  the  supporting  tissues  of  plantain. 

4.  How  does  the  bundle  develop  ? 

First,   from    the    simple    protoplasm    of    the   growing 

plant. 
Second,  from  the  zone  of  long,  thin-walled  cells. 
Third,  by  the  change  of  such  cells  into  bundle  tissues. 
Sometimes  all  these  cells  stiffen  into  permanent  tissue. 

Such  cannot  grow  further. 

5.  Of  what  use  is  this  supporting  system  ?     Why  is  the 

material  arranged  so  carefully  ? 

Test  IV. 

BI^ACKBOARD. 

1.  Select  two  pupils  to  write  the  items  of  a  "  bundle." 

2.  Have  the  class  tell  the  material  of  each  item,  and  what 

they  consider  is  its  use.  Teach  that  the  laws  of 
the  plant's  growth  pack  the  tissues  according  to 
the  needs  of  the  plant  body. 

3.  Receive  criticisms  and  have  corrections  made. 

4.  Call  attention  to  the  veining  of  tree  leaves,  of  some 

plucked-off  shrubs,  of  a  leaf  of  geranium,  of  a  petal. 


THE    SUPPORTING    SYSTEM.  O/ 

Have  the  class  tell  the  material  of  the  veins,  and 
their  true  name.  Kevieiv  what  a  ''  bundle "  is, 
where  it  is  found,  when,  where,  and  why  it  is  tough 
and  easily  drawn  from  the  other  systems. 

Blackboard  practice  in  writing  statements  about,  — 

the  use  of  the  supporting  system  of  tissues. 

its  position  in  the  plant  body. 

its  make-up. 

its  appearance  in  the  plantain  stalk. 

the  supporting  tissue  of  a  geranium  leaf. 

the  supporting  system  of  trees  and  shrubs. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  FUNDAMENTAL  SYSTEM. 


A. 

MATERIALS. 

What  have  you  learned  about  the  tissues  of  a  stem  ? 

I.    The  boundary  and  supporting  tissues  guard  and 
shape  a  stem. 

Give  examples. 

II.    If  they  are   stripped  off,  fundamental   tissue  re- 
mains. 

III.  In  the  lowest  and  simplest  plants  everything  inside 

the  skin  belongs  to  the  fundamental  system ;  as,  — 
a  kelp,  rock  weed,  most  mosses. 

IV.  In    the    stems   of   large   trees   there  is   very  little 

fundamental  tissue  present. 

Point  out  the  fundamental  tissue  in  the  following,  and 
think  about  what  its  use  must  be :  — 

a  cross-section  of  pumpkin  stem. 
a  section  of  milkweed. 
a  slice  of  young  wood. 

How  is  the  fundamental  system  told  in  wood? 


THE    FUNDAMENTAL    SYSTEM.  39 

V.  The  pith  of  trees,  and  the  rays  which  run  throiig^h 

wood  and  bark,  are  made  of  the  fundaniental 
system. 
In  wood  this  system  is  nearly  crowded  out  by  the 
development  of  boundary  and  supporting  tissue. 

(1)  Tell  of  what  each  of  these  words  is  the  name, — 

soft,         fibrous,         stony,         milk. 

(2)  Describe  soft  tissue. 

(3)  Give  an  example  of  fibrous  tissue. 

(4)  State  the  condition  of  walls  of  stony  tissue. 

(5)  Name  the  colored  fluid  of  milk  tissue.     In  how 
many  forms  does  fundamental  tissue  develop? 

VI.  The    fundamental    system    may   hold   soft,    stony, 

fibrous,  and  milk  tissues. 

Write  the  names  of  the  tissues  found  in  the  fundamental 
system  of,  — 

pumpkin,       squash,       milkweed,       apple  twig. 

Exercise. 

1.  Write  the  name  of  the  tissue  which  is  most  abundant 

in,— 

kelp,         cactus,         fleshy  leaves,         fruits. 

2.  Examine  mounted  specimens  of  the  above,  and  state  the 

position  of  this  tissue  in  the  fundamental  system  of 
each. 

3.  Collect  five  common  specimens,  and  carefully  note  the 

amount  of  soft  tissue  in  comparison  with  the  three 
others,  and  where  it  is  found. 


40  A    PKIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

VII.  Soft  tissue  is  the  most  abundant  of    the  funda- 

mental tissues.     It  is  usually  the  central  tissue 
mass. 

1.  Look  for  fibrous  tissue  masses  near  tlie  skin  in   tlie 

following :  — 

leaves  of  Scotch  pine,  ferns. 

VIII.  Fibrous  tissue  in  the  fundamental  system  forms 
band-like  masses,  giving  strength  to  the  plant 
form. 

2.  Locate  fibrous  tissue  in  the  fundamental  part  of,  — 

the  leaf  of  Scotch  pine,  moss  stems, 

the  fern  stems,  fern  leaves, 

the  leaf  of  a  flowering  plant. 

Milk  tissue  is  found  in  any  part  of  the  fundamental 
system  of  flowering  plants. 

We  see  that  the  tissue  masses  of  the  fundamental  system 
are  so  arranged  that  the  boundary  is  firm  and  the 
interior  soft.  So  ive  find  that  the  sin^jlest  system 
can  develop  ivhat  is  needed  for  life.  The  fibrous  and 
stony  tissues  lie  on  the  outside  of  the  mass  of  soft 
tissue. 


B. 

SPACES  BETWEEN   CELLS. 

Where  are  spaces  between  cells  found? 
Upon  leaves,  leaf  stalks,  and  stems. 


THE    FUNDAMENTAL    SYSTEM.  41 

In  what  leaf  surface  are  tliey  usual? 
In  the  soft  tissue  of  the  under  surface. 

What  do  they  hold? 
Air  and  vapor. 

Where  are  the  spaces  large  enough  to  be  seen  without 
a  glass? 
In  the  rushes  and  Avater  lilies. 


Water  Lilies. 

Examine  cross-sections  carefully,  and  state  three  proper- 
ties of  these  large  spaces. 

They  are   shaped  like   canals,   conduct  air,   and  com- 
municate with  the  breathing-pores. 

Where  are  the  spaces  found  in  water  plants  ? 
Usually  upon  the   upper  surfaces   of   leaves   and   leaf 
stalks. 

Give  a  reason. 
The  lower  surfaces  of  leaves  which  float  on  the  water 
have  few  hreathing'-pores.    Stalks  entirely  under 
water  have  few  pores. 


42  A    PEIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

How  are  spaces  between  cells  furmed  ? 
By  the  rapid  growth  of  cells  of  soft  tissue. 

What  is  their  size  and  shape  in  most  plants  ? 
Usually  small  and  irregular. 

What  do  they  mnch  resemble? 
Cells. 

Where  are  they  largest  ? 
In  water  plants,  the  pine  tree,  and  some  fruit  rinds. 

What  are  some  intercellular  spaces  ? 

Wells  of  gum. 

Such  sjmces  are  walled  in  hy  cells  making  the  gum  and 
exudmg  it  into  the  cavity. 

Name  a  product  secreted  in  this  way. 
Turpentine. 

1.  Study  turpentine  canals  in  the  large-leaved  pines  and 

spruces,  and  note  — 

shape,  size,  boundaries, 

character  of  the  boundary  cells. 

2.  On  which  surface  of  the  leaf  do  they  prevail  ? 

3.  Study  cross-sections  of  the  leaves  of,  — 

spearmint,  bergamot,  sage. 

Describe  the  oil  receptacles. 
i.    Describe  the  turpentine  canals  found  in  slices  of  the 
stems  of,  — 

scrub  pine,       white  pine,       balsam  fir. 


THE    FUNDAMENTAL    SYSTEM. 


43 


Exercise  I. 
Find  the  spaces  between  cells  in,  — 
the  soft  tissue  of  pith, 
the  leaf  stalk  of  a  water  lily. 
a  stem  of  ivy. 

Write   statements  about  the  size,  shape,  and  contents 
of  the  spaces   found   in   each. 
Cross-sections   must    be    used 
for  mounting. 


Section  Through  Leaf. 

s.  skin. 
s.f.  soft  tissue. 
i.s.  spaces  between  cells. 
B.  bundles. 


Exercise  II. 

Define  the  word  intercellular. 

Tell  whether  the  intercel- 
lular spaces  of  this  list 
are    (a)    slight   or   well    developed;     (6)    whether 
they  contain  air,  or  gum,  or  oil :  — 

fresh  lemon  rind. 

leaf  stalks  of  water  plants. 

the  rind  of  a  fresh  orange. 

the  lower  surface  of  an  apple  leaf. 

geranium  leaves. 

a  leaf  of  the  black  currant. 

meadow  grass. 

a  stalk  of  ice  plant. 

leaves  of  sundew. 

stems  of  the  moss  rose. 

Make  a  statement  about  spaces  upon,  — 

a  leaf  of  the  passion  flower, 
moss  rose  buds. 


44  A    PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

c.    Fill   the    blanks   in    these   statements   with   correctly 
chosen  words :  — 

(1)  The  fragrance  of  new  hay  is  caused  by in  the 

of  meadow  grass. 

(2)  As  the  tissues  of  the  grass  blades  wither,  the  

exudes  to  the  surfaces. 

(3)  The  intercellular  of  pine  leaves  are  and 

contain . 

(4)  Spaces   between   the  cells  of  plants  are  found 

upon  upper  sides  only. 

(5)  The spaces  of  ice  plants  are  wells  of which 

looks  like  ice. 

(6)  The surface  of  an  apple  leaf  has  no ,  because 

this  surface  is  without . 

(7)  Study  the in  the  fresh  rind  of  the  orange 

and  lemon. 

(8)  Make  cross-sections  of  the  of  white  pine,  and 

study in  bark  and  wood. 

Review. 

ORAI.. 

Read  these  words:  boundary^  supporting^  fundame7ital. 
Use  each  of  them  in  connection  with  plant  tissues,  and 

tell  how  and  why  tissues  divide  into  systems. 
Define  a  tissue  system.     Where  do  tissue  systems  reach 
the  fullest  development  ?    What  plants  are  without 
them  ? 
Name  the   three   modifications  of  cells  of  soft  tissue  to 
form  the  boundary  system.     Define  — 
change  of  form, 
thickening  of  walls. 
disai)})earance  of  protoplasm. 


THE    FUNDAMENTAL    SYSTEM.  45 

Account  for  changes  of  cell  form,  and  for  thickening  of 
cell-walls. 

Locate  skin,  hairs,  and  hreathing-pores  in  the  boundary 
system  of  higher  phxnts.  Is  the  system  separable 
in  the  hnvest  plants?  How  separable  in  higher 
fungi?  Wlieii  does  protoplasm  disappear  rapidly 
in  skin-coW^  ?  When  slowly  ?  Give  examples. 
How  many  layers  of  cells  in  the  shin  ?  An  excep- 
tion. 

Are  the  cell-walls  of  skin  tissue  thick  or  thin  in,  — 

kelp?    blights?    clover?    lily  leaves?   leaf  of  holly? 

Account  for  the  hloom  upon  a  cabbage  leaf. 
What  are  hairs? 

Ans.    They  are  absorptive  cells  piled  upon  each  other. 

Describe  their  growth.  Tell  the  most  important  hairs. 
What  is  the  use  of  root-hairs  ?  Give  one  example 
of  simple  hairs.     Of  greatly  branched  hairs. 

What  do  the  hairs  of  these  plants  manufacture  ?  — 

Chinese  primrose,       petunia,       verbena. 

Describe  breathing-pores  upon,  — 

aerial  leaves,  lower  leaf  surfaces, 

submerged  stems,  a  lilac  leaf, 

true  roots,  lily  leaves, 

red  clover,  a  petal. 

Find  the  supporting  system  in,  — 

(a)  plantain,  ((i)  red  clover, 

(5)   Indian  corn,  (e)    castor-oil  plant, 

(e)    sweet  flag,  (/)  brake  fern. 


46  A    PRIMER    OF    BOTAXY. 

Of  what  is  the  supporting  system  made  up?     Why  is  it 

needed,  and  how  do  the  tissues  draw  together  to 

form  the  "bundle"? 
What  is  the  fundamental  system?     Name  the  four  tissues 

found  in  it. 
Tell  where  in  the  fundamental  system  you  will  find  these 

tissue  masses :  — 

soft  tissue,  stony  tissue, 

fibrous  tissue,  milk  tissue. 

Name  the  composition  of  a  verbena  stem,  and  tell  in  state- 
ments the  use  of  each  system  of  tissues. 

Define  inter celhdar.  Describe  mtercellulai'  spaces.  Define 
a  turpentine  canal. 


BI.ACKBOAKD. 

Write,  and  use  correctly  in  written  statements, — 

1.  The  names  of  tissues  of  plants  in  the  schoolroom. 

2.  The  names  of  tissues  of  five  plants  seen  on  your  way 

to  school. 

3.  The  names  of  tissue  systems  in  plants  at  home. 

4.  The  name  of  a  plant  which  possesses  root-hairs. 

5.  The  name  of  a  leaf  which  has  breathing-pores  on  its 

lower  side  only. 

6.  The  name  of  a  plant  which  has  no  skin. 

7.  The  names  of  plants  possessing  supporting  systems  of 

tissue. 

8.  Four  words  that  are  tlie  names  of  masses  which  form 

the  fundamental  system. 


THE   FUNDAMENTAL    SYSTEM.  47 

9.    The  name  of  a  plant  having,  — 

a  branching  hair,  a  tough  "  bundle," 

a  hair  which  is  a  gland,  "  bloom," 

very  much  soft  tissue,  a  gum  reservoir, 

stony  tissue,  an  oil  receptacle. 

10.  The  tissues  of  plants  mentioned  in  a  lesson  of  your 
Reader,  or  in  an  article  of  a  newspaper,  or  on  a 
page  of  a  book. 

ORAL  AND  BLACKBOARD. 

Write  a  definition  of  protoplasm,  and  the  plant  cell. 
Write  your  idea  of  a  plant  tissue. 
Give,  in  written  statements,  — 

(rt)  the  name  of  a  plant  body  whose  tissues  have  de- 
veloped into  tissue  systems. 
(5)   the  name  of  another,  which  is  a  single  cell. 

Copy  this  sentence  :  — 

"  The  cells,  tissues,  and  tissue  systems  are  arranged  to 
form  the  j9/a?i^  body.'^ 

Carefully  explain  how,  — 

(a)  cells  are  pressed  into  tissues. 
(5)  tissues  divide  into  systems. 

Give  the  name  of  the  system  which   (1)   conducts,   (2) 

supports,  (3)  guards. 
Of  what  are  all  these  tissues  made  ? 
Where  are  they  lying  undeveloped  ? 
Name  a  plant  wholly  of  naked  protoplasm. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  PHYSIOLOGY  OF   PLANTS. 


A. 

WATER   IN  THE   PLANT. 

Directions.  —  "  Weigh  a  handful  of  green  grass ;  dry  it 
in  an  oven.  Weigh  again :  the  difference  in  the 
two  weighings  will  be  very  nearly  the  amount  of 
water  in  the  living  plant." 

1.  Name  the  living  part  of  every  plant. 

2.  Dictate  the  following  for  class  use  :  — 

Water  is  always  present  in  living  protoi^lasm ;  and  the 
greater  its  activity,  the  more  ivatery  is  its  composition. 

3.  What  does  the  water  in  protoplasm  hokl?     A  proof.* 

4.  Why  is  more  water  required,  according  to  the  activ- 

ity of  protoplasm  ?     Write  a  statement  concerning 
tissues  developed  by  this  activity. 

5.  Write  another  statement,  naming  points  in  the  plant 

where  water  is  especially  needed. 

The  cell-ivalls  of  living  tissues  contain  much  water. 

6.  At  what  points  of  the  plant  will  cell-walls  be  thus 

saturated?     Why  necessarily  so? 

*  Plants  die  without  it. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS.  49 

7.  As  tissues  develop  and  stiffen  into  shape,  is  the  water 

wholly  lost  ? 

8.  Prove  this  by  common  specimens  of  flowering  })h)nts. 

Water  is  so  abundant  in  very  simple  aquatic  *  ^j>/cmfs,  that 
ujwn  dri/mg  tJiem  a  mere  film  is  left. 

9.  What  percentage  of  water  has  a  growing  land  phant? 

The  amount  of  water   in  a  higher  flowering-  jilant  is 

seventy-five  per  cent  of  its  Aveight. 
The  amount  of  Avater  in  seaAveeds  is  often  ninety-five 

per  cent. 

10.  Read   the    statements    of   the   lesson.      Mention   the 

items  in  each  about  water  in  the  plant  body.  Tell 
which  great  class  of  plants  contains  most  water, 
and  why. 

11.  Why  is  water  so  plentiful  in  active  protoplasm  ? 

1.  Write  a  statement  about  water  in  the  following  plants, 

and  give  the  percentage  as  lotu  or  high  of  water  in 
the  plant  body  :  — 

(ct)  green  slime,  kelp. 
(5)   a  verbena,  grasses. 
(<?)    mosses,  ferns. 

2.  Read  the  statement,  and  give  very  clearly  the  percent- 

ages of  water. 

3.  Tell  what  is  found  in  protoplasm,  and  what  saturates 

cell-walls. 

4.  Mention   the  parts  of  the  plant  where  watery  proto- 

plasm is  most  abundant.     Give  a  reason. 

*  Explain  to  the  class  the  meaning  of  the  word  aquatic. 


50  A   PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

6.    Review  the  dictated  sentences.   What  have  you  learned 
about  water  in  plants? 

I.    All  livinj?  parts  of  the  plant  are  abundantly  supplied 
with  water. 
All  parts  of  the  plant  body,  except  old  wood,  are 
living  parts. 


B. 

WATER   IN  PROTOPLASM  AND   IN   CELL-WALLS. 

Living  protoplasm  absorbs  water  for  the  sake  of  the 
food  which  the  water  holds.  This  swells  the 
protoplasm,  and  is  a  cause  of  plant  growth. 
When  protoplasm  has  absorbed  all  the  water 
it  can  hold,  it  continues  the  process  and  distils 
the  drops  of  water  within  its  own  boundaries, 
as  reserve  matter. 

The  cells  of  growing  tissues  display  very  watery  proto- 
plasm. Those  of  living  but  sleeping  tissues  hold  thick, 
jelly-like  protoplasm  ;  thus,  — 

Put  dry  beans  in  soak :  the  first  sign  of  life  is  the  absorp- 
tion of  water. 

Seeds  are  buried  iii  earth  so  that  they  shall  absorb  the 
moisture  of  the  soil.  A  dahlia  bulb  is  soaked^  in 
order  to  wake  the  protoplasm  in  the  tissues. 

A  seed  which  will  not  sprout  in  water  has  no  living  proto- 
plasm. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLAXTS.  51 


% 


Water  in  protoplasmic  cells  keeps  them  full  and  shapely. 
By  this  general  bracing  force  soft  tissue  is  kept 
rigid,  and  the  plant  is  assisted  to  its  shap)e. 

Verify  the  rules  by  examining  with  the  microscope  well- 
soaked  beans  that  are  beginning  to  sprout.  The  absorbed 
water  will  be  very  visible,  and  its  value  at  the  growing 
point  seen  in  detail. 

Or,  make  cross-sections  of  the  tips  of  the  roots  of  Indian 
corn,  or  sections  of  young  asparagus  shoots.  Examine 
with  the  microscope.  Stain  them  with  iodine.  The  pro- 
toplasm will  turn  brow^n.  Note  the  drops  of  water  inside 
its  substance. 

1.  What  is  a  cell? 

2.  Of  what  is    green    slime    made?      The   oak?      The 

elm  ? 

3.  State  the  grand  point  of  difference  between  the  slime 

and  elm. 

Ans.    They  differ  in  the  number  of  cells  employed, 

4.  What  is  a  cell-wall  ? 

5.  Read  carefully  this  description  of  its  structure  :  — 

(a)  When  you  look  at  a  slant  sunbeam,  you  see  a  layer 
of  dust  atoms,  among  ivhich  the  air  appears  to  be 
freely  p)assi7ig. 

(^)  A  cell-wall  is  a  layer  of  solid  particles  not  in  contact, 
between  ivhich  the  water  freely  p)asses. 

(c)  Cell-ivalls  thicken  into  formed  and  p>erfected  tissues  by 
the  great  increase  of  solid  paj'ticles.  Solid  particles 
are  used-up  matters,  thus  laid  on  a  shelf. 


52  A    PEIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

Task. 

In  aquatic  plants  of  low  orders  the  flow  of  water  is 
continuous  from  the  outside  to  the  inside  of  their  struc- 
tures. Mount  pieces  of  kelp  or  fresh-water  plauts,  and 
note  the  wateriness  of  cell-walls  and  contents. 

By  the  specimens  examined,  write  statements  about, — 

(((')  the  composition  of  the  growing  point  of  a  plant,  its 

wateriness,  and  two  reasons  for  this  saturation. 
(/>)   the  proof  by  actual  weight  of  the  absorption  of  water. 

Its  help  in  supplying  the  waste  by  evaporation, 
(c)    the  continuity*  of  water  in  tissues  with  that  of  the 

soil.     The  flow  in    aquatic   plants.     Describe    the 

real  formation  of  a  cell-wall. 

Caution.  —  Look  over  your  paper,  and  see,  — 

that  all  your  groups  of  words  are  statements, 
that  no  word  is  omitted  or  misspelled, 
that  the  word  lyrotoplasm  is  always  correctly  used, 
that  you  understand  what  you  are  expected  to  know. 

Varied  and  persistent  practice  with  specimens. 


*  This  word  seems  the  indispensable  thing,  but  had  best  be  ex- 
plained with  an  illiistration. 


THE    niYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS.  53 

C. 

DISTURBANCE   OF   ^YATER   IN  THE   PLANT. 

II.  In  winter  the  water  in  a  plant  is  motionless,  and 

the  plant  body  rests. 

During  the  warm  months  plants  grow,  and  the  water  in 
their  structures  is  disturbed  («)  by  actual  breakage  into 
gases  for  the  plant's  use ;  (/>)  by  displacement  by  solid 
material  manufactured  in  the  cell ;  (>^)  by  displacement 
by  liquid  matters  manufactured  in  the  cell,  as,  — 

The  gradual  formation  of  the  tissues  which  lie  unde- 
veloped in  the  growing  points  of  the  plant. 

III.  This  work  goes  on  in  all  cells  of  all  plants,  proving 

that  a  simple  yeast  cell  is  as  truly  a  plant  as  is 
a  rose  tree. 

If  a  tiny  drop  of  water  is  broken  up  into  gases,  what  is 
left? 

Every  drop  thus  broken  up  leaves  a  vacancy. 

How  is  the  vacancy  filled  ? 

It  is  filled,  sooner  or  later,  from  the  flow  of  water  in 
the  cell. 

Task. 

Give  the  reason  of  the  winter  rest  of  plants. 

Describe  the  condition  of  the  water  in  a  plant  body  during 

the  cold  months. 
How  is  water  a  plant  material  ? 
Give  two  disturbing  agencies  in  a  cell. 


54  A    PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

As  the  drops  are   used  by  the  cell  protoplasm,  how  are 

vacancies  filled  ? 
From  what  cells  are  supplies  drawn  ? 

Ans.  New  supplies  of  water  are  drawn  from  the 
nearest  cells. 

Caution.  In  aquatic  plants  of  low  orders  the  needed 
water  is  absorbed  directly  from  the  surrounding 
water.  Higher  aquatic  plants  possess  systems  of 
tissues.  In  this  case  the  deep-lying  tissues  must 
draw  their  water  supply  from  surrounding  cells. 

Dictate  statements  concerning  water  at  rest  and  in  motion 
in,— 

(1)  an  oak. 

(2)  a  bit  of  kelp. 

(3)  a  grown  geranium. 

(4)  a  bean  sprout. 

(5)  specimens  of  green  slime  or  of  pond  scum. 

IV.  All  parts  of  plants  above  the  g-round  or  above  the 
water  depend  entirely  upon  cell  supplies  of 
moisture ;  as,  — 

All  the  growing  cells  of  the  flowering  plants  and 
weeds  which  we  have  about  us  in  summer. 

All  pad-like  leaves  that  rest  upon  water  surfaces,  and 
all  the  blossoms  of  such  plants. 

All  aerial  (living  in  the  air)  roots  and  rootlets. 

Give  with  care,  the  route  of  a  particle  of  water  from  the 
soil,  at  the  root-hairs  of  a  geranium,  to  the  growing 
points  of  the  plant  body. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS.  55 

The  route  of  a  like  particle  from  the  outside  to  the  centre 

of  a  well-grown  water-lily  plant. 
Examine  slime  or  scum,  and  describe  the  absorption  of 

water. 


D. 

EVAPORATION. 

1.  What  is  a  disturbing  element  in  aerial  parts  of  plants  ? 

V.  Evaporation  of  water  in  the  aerial  parts  of  plants 

is  a  powerful  element  of  disturbance  ;  as,  — 

Expose  a  cell  of  pond  scum  to  dry  air ;  the  evaporation  is 
seen  hy  the  collapse  of  the  cell. 

VI.  Evaporation  of  water  in  one  cell  disturbs  the  water 

throughout  the  tissue,  and  compels  it  to  re-ad- 
just itself. 

VII.  Dry  air  and  light  have  influence  upon  evapora- 

tion. If  the  air  is  full  of  moisture,  the  Avater 
in  the  plant  body  cannot  exhale,  and  the  cells 
are  distended.  When  the  moisture  is  blown  off 
by  the  wind  or  is  dried  up  by  the  sun,  evapora- 
tion begins. 

2.  Note  and  express  in  statements  the  relative  rapidity  of 

exhalation  in  the  following  experiments  :  — 

Fresh  leaves  of  clover  suspended  in  a  tumbler  which 

stands  on  a  wet  plate. 
Other  fresh  leaves  in  a  dry  plate,  with  no  protection 

from  dry  air. 


56  A   PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

3.    What  retards  evaporation  ? 

VIIT.    The  thick  outer  laj  er  of  skin-cells  in  the  higher 
plants  resists  the  escape  of  water. 
The  simple  cells  of  the  lowest  plants  are  guarded 
by  very  thick  walls  ;  as,  tough  moulds. 

Test. 

WRITTEN. 

Write  the  relative  rapidity  of  evaporation  in  the  case 

of,- 

the  garden  plants  on  a  wet  day. 
a  cactus. 

geranium  leaves  during  the  night, 
green  slime  upon  a  damp  wall, 
the  same  placed  in  warm,  dry  air. 

ORAL.  » 

What  parts  of  plants  are  exposed  to  evaporation  ?     How 
does  it  disturb  the  water  in  the  plant?     When  is 
this  disturbance  greatest? 
Ans.    When  evaporation  is  most  rapid. 

How  many,  and  what  conditions  favor  evaporation?   What 
influence  has  heat? 

The    absorbing   power    of   protoplasm  is  a  "slowing" 
power  about  evaporation. 

Give  another  reason  why  plant  evaporation  seems  slow. 
Ans.    Cell  water  holds   many  more  matters   in   solu- 
tion than  does  pure  water,  by  whose  evaporation 
we  are  apt  to  judge  it. 

Why  has  a  cactus  a  thick  skin?     In  what  climates  will 
many  layers  of  skin  develop  upon  a  stem  ? 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS.  57 

How  are  plants  that  are  single  cells  protected  ? 
Define  breatliing-pores.      Locate    them   in  the  boundary 
system.     What  do  breathing-pores  greatly  control? 
Ans.    The  rapidity  of  evaporation. 
What  fills  intercellular  spaces  ?     How  do  the  spaces  com- 
municate with  outside  air  ? 
Ans.    B}^  the  breathing-pores. 
Is  exhalation  from   the    spaces    between    cells   constant? 
What  stops  the  flow  of  moist  air  from  these  spaces  ? 
Ans.    The  closure  of  the  breathing-pores. 
Upon  what  does  the  opening  and  closing  of  breathing- 
pores  depend? 
Ans.   Upon  the  surface  of  the  boundary  system  and 
upon  light.     When  the  plant  skin  is  very  dry,  they 
close. 


E. 

MOVEMENT  OF   WATER   IN  THE   PLANT. 

Why  is  a  movement  of  the  water  of  the  plant  unavoid- 
able? 

A  considerable  movement  of  water  supplies  the  loss  by 
evaporation. 

(«)  In  the  trees  and  shrubs  we  live  among-,  the  move- 
ment of  water  is  upward  to  the  leaves.  Leaves 
are  losing*  water  continually. 

(1) 

Cut  off  a  tender  stem  at  noon  of  a  dry  day ;  the  leaves 
wilt  at  once. 


58  A    PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

Place  the  cut  stem  in  a  tumbler  of  water. 
Water  is  greedily  absorbed  by  the  stem,  and  the  leaves 
regain  freshness. 

(2) 
Tinge  with  carmine  ink  the  water  in  the  tumbler.     Let 
the  stem  be  delicately  thin.     In  a  few  minutes  the  liquid 
will  stain  some  tissues  deeply,  and  others  very  slightly. 
Name  the  tissues  which  conduct  the  fluid  easily. 

(3) 

Place  a  leafy  apple  twig  in  a  bottle  of  water.  Close 
the  mouth  with  wax  to  prevent  any  evaporation  from  the 
w^ater  surface.  The  level  in  the  bottle  will  perceptibly 
lower,  proving  the  loss  by  evaporation. 

(4) 
Your  own  experience  with  a  bouquet  of  cut  flowers. 

(h')  The  tissue  masses  through  which  water  usually 
passes  rapidly  are  those  formed  of  tube-shaped 
cells  of  w^oody  material.  (See  cut  sjDecimens  with 
the  glass.) 

(c)  The  movement  of  the  water  is  through  the  cell- 
walls  more  than  through  the  cells  of  the  tissue 
masses  just  described.  Solid  particles  of  cell- 
wall  attract  the  water  in  which  they  float,  and 
thus,  by  different  displacements,  it  rises  to  the 
top  of  tall  trees. 

(d}  Water  moves  upward  rapidly  or  otherwise,  accord- 
ing to  the  plant.  It  has  risen  nine  inches  in  an 
hour  in  a  silver  poplar. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF   PLANTS.  59 

Bring  a  little  branch  of  sugar  maple  i^ito  a  warm  school- 
room. As  the  branch  warms,  the  sap  will  flow  from 
the  ivomid.  Put  it  out  of  doors  a  few  minutes,  and 
the  flow  will  decrease  ;  bi'ing  it  in  again,  and  the  sap 
will  drip  as  before.  This  must  be  done  on  a  cold 
day  —  say  zero  Fahrenheit  or  thereabouts. 

What  have  you  learned  about  the  flow  of  water  (sap) 
from  sugar  maples  ? 

(e)  The  flow  of  sap  from  the  steins  of  sug-ar  maples 
seems  clue  to  the  influence  of  heat  and  cokl  upon 
the  tissues  of  their  boundary  systems.  The 
water  is  forced  out  when  it  is  warm ;  at  night, 
when  it  grows  cokl,  air  is  drawn  into  the  stem. 
When  the  temperature  is  much  alike  through 
the  twenty-four  hours,  —  that  is,  in  hot  weather, 
or  in  very  cold  weather,  —  there  is  no  flow  of 
sap. 

Is  there  a  "  circulation  of  sap  "  ? 

(/)  There  is  an  upward  movement  of  water,  through 
the  warm  months,  in  order  to  supply  the  loss 
from  the  leaves.  There  is  no  dowuAvard  move- 
ment to  correspond.  "  Circulation  of  sap  "  does 
not  exist. 

Remember, — 

(1)  that  ivater  does  not  go  down  into  the  roots  of  a  tree  in 

the  autumn,  nor  rise  in  the  spring. 

(2)  that  there  is  more  icater  (sap)  in  an  ordinary  tree  in 

winter  than  there  is  iyi  the  spring  or  the  summer. 


60  A   PRIMER    OF   BOTANY. 

(3)  that   the  reason  of  this   abundance   is   the  loss  of  the 
leaves,  the  agents  of  evaporation. 

Test  I. 
Use  these  items  in  a  statement :  — 

Reason  of  the  movement  of  water  in  plants. 
Direction  of  the  movement. 

AVrite  an  example  of  the  route  of  water  up  the  trunk  of 

a  tree. 
Write   the   formation   of   the   preferred   tissue  masses  of 

the  route,    with  a  reason  why  continuous  woody 

cells  can  draw  water  drops  to  the  tops  of  tall  trees. 
Write  a  statement  about  the  so-called  circulation  of  sap, 

and  mention  a  popular  error  about  the  location  of 

sap  in  winter. 
Look  over  the  statements  written,  and  tell,  — 

(1)  why  the  water  must  be  in  motion  throughout  a 

growing  plant  body. 

(2)  why  its  route  is  upward. 

(3)  how  this  may  be  easil}^  proven. 

(4)  what  tissues  it  prefers  for  its  path. 

(5)  whether  there  is  sap  in  perennial  plants  "  the  year 

around." 

Perennial  plants  —  roses,  currant  shrubs,  etc.  —  live 
above  ground  through  the  cold  months.  Annuals  —  like 
the  phlox  and  the  pansy  —  die  to  the  ground  in  early  winter. 

Test  II. 
How  would  you  begin  a  composition  about  "  The  Move- 
ment of  Water  in  Higher,  or  Many-Celled  Plants"? 
Think  of  a  proper  arrangement  of  items. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS. 


61 


Describe, — 

(^a)  a  many-celled  plant.  (e)    roots. 

(6)   evaporation.  (/)  stems. 

(^)    breathing-pores.  (^)  branches. 

(cZ)  cell-walls.  (/i)  leaves. 

Write  the  composition. 

Tell  whether  there  is  a  movement  of  water  in  single- 
celled  plants ;  if  it  is  considerable.  Mention  one 
reason  for  your  decision. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

MORE  ABOUT  THE  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  PLANTS. 


A. 

PLANT  FOOD. 

What  is  plant  food  ? 

I.    Certain  g-ases  and  matters  which  you  will  by  and 
by  find  named  and  explained  in  chemistry. 


Sea  Weeds. 

Some  of  these  matters  are  essential  to  our  own 
living;  as,-sulphur,  iron,  and  oxygen. 

With  the  exception  of  oxygen,  these  elements  be- 
come mixed  before  the  plant  uses  them.  They 
are  usually  also  mixed  with  water.  No  plant 
can  get  on  without  water. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS.  68 

Caution.  —  Some  jolcints  live  upon  the  juices  of  host  plants^ 
as  the  mistletoe ;  manij  more  live  upon  decaying 
matters  of  the  soil,  or  ujmn  decaying  animal  matter, 
as  the  Venus's  fly-trap. 

How  is  the  food  eaten  ? 

II.  The  tissue  masses  of  water  plants  are  so  perfectly 
saturated  by  the  surrounding"  water  that  the 
food  matters  which  it  holds  are  taken  easily  into 
the  plant  body. 

III.  Leaves  of  land  plants  are  steeped  in  the  surround- 

ing air,  and  take  from  it  g-ases  which  are  plant 
food. 

IV.  A  watery  abundance  of  these  foods  and  all  other 

necessary  things  to  eat  are  absorbed  by  the  root- 
hairs  of  land  plants. 
V.    The  water  of  the  soil  holds  food  materials  of  all 
sorts,  furnishing  them  to  plants  in  tiny  quanti- 
ties, and  going  with  them  inside  the  plant  body. 

Test  I. 

BLACKBOARD. 

Write  a  statement  about  plant  food,  mentioning  one  food 
common  to  the  animal  and  plant  worlds. 

Copy  the  following  names  of  plants,  and  use  them  correctly 
in  statements,  locating  them  as  land  or  water  plants : 
pond  lily,  primrose,  toadstools, 

begonia,  plantain,  smuts, 

geranium,  grasses,  rusts, 

sundew,  cat-tail  flag,  ferns, 

Jack  in  the  pulpit,  duckweeds,  red  seaweed, 

mosses,  puff  balls,  lichens, 

pitcher  plants. 


64  A    PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

Decide  whether  each  takes  food  from  (a)  surrounding 
waves,  (/>)  air  and  soil  water,  ((?)  other  plants,  (cZ) 
dead  animals. 

Rewrite  your  work,  making  from  it  one  correct  and  full 
statement  about  each  plant. 

Name  the  strange  plants  of  the  list. 

Caution. — The  puff  halls  and  toadstools  which  ive  see  are 
fruits.  Their  |?Za7i^s  live  underground  in  any  soil 
full  of  decaying  vegetable  matter.  Lichens  live  upon 
little  host  p)lo>nts. 

Write  a  statement  about  the  food,  and  habit  of  eating,  of 
three  plants  found  in  your  neighborhood. 

Cautions.  —  (1)  Do  not  leave  out  the  item  of  location  ;  that 
is,  tvhether  they  are  water  or  land  plants.  (2)  Name 
the  feiv  food  materials  you  hioiv.  (3)  Ahvays  name 
one  food  material  necessary  to  plants  and  animals. 

Test  II. 

ORAL  AND  WRITTEN. 

1.  Tell  of  what  two  classes  all  plants  must  be. 

2.  Name  all  the  methods  of  obtaining  plant  food.     Give 

the  most  common  methods.     Write  an  example  of 
each. 

3.  Wliich  holds  the  most  plant  food,  well  water  or  pond 

water  ? 

4.  Dictate  the  name  of  a  ^^lant,  — 

(a)  which  takes  food  directly  from  the  water  in  which 
it  lies,  and  spends  its  whole  existence. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS.  65 

(6)  which  has  many  leaves  spread  in  the  air,  a  stem 
with  many  breathing-pores,  and  many  rootlets  pen- 
etrating the  earth. 

5.    Use  these  items  in  statements  :  — 

(«)  Blue   mould;    air;    decaying  tissue;    land  plant; 

old  pastry. 
(5)   Ferns ;  air  ;  soil  water  ;  land  plant. 
((?)    Slimes;  water;  food  supply;  water  plant;  oxygen. 


B. 

HOW  THE  FOOD  CIRCULATES  IN  A  PLANT. 

What  does  the  word  food  mateynal  mean  ? 

Do  the  foods  circulate  in  solid  parts  or  watery  parts  of 

plants  ? 
Name  two  food  materials. 
Name  two  methods  of  absorption. 

Ans.    Absorption    directly   from    surrounding   air   or 

water,   and  indirect  absorption  by  diffusion   from 

rootlets. 
Do    aerial   parts   absorb   gases  or  watery  foods?      What 

aerial  members  of  the  plant  body  absorb  gases  ? 
How  would  a  perfect  state  of  rest  throughout  the  plant 

body  promote  an  equal  diffusion  of  food? 
What  aids  the  diffusion  of  food  matters  ? 

{a)  Evaporation  greatly  aids  transportation  of  food  ma- 
terials by  a  strong  upward  movement  of  water. 


66 


A   PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 


(5)  The  water  drawn  upward  to  the  leaves  holds  in  its 
surfaces  the  plant  foods,  and  leaves  them  along  its 
way  for  the  plant's  benefit. 

(c)  Plant  food  can  be  diffused 
through  plant  tissues  without 
any  dependence  upon  evapo- 
ration, although  it  is  usually 
carried  along  in  the  water 
in  its  upward  route. 

Tell  what  process  aids  transporta- 
tion of  plant  food. 

How  is  movement  of  the  water  in 
the  tissue  masses  promoted 
by  evaporation  ? 

Can  diffusion  of  plant  food  progress 
without  it  ?  How  ? 
Ans.  By  the  constant  changes  of 
position  of  the  protoplasmic 
particles  composing  a  grow- 
ing plant. 

Exercise  I. 
Sprout  three  kernels  of  corn,  and 
transfer  them  to  jars  full  respective- 
ly of  distilled  water,  well  water,  and 

pond  water,  and  tell,  —  Adder's  Tongue  Fern. 

(a)  whether  the  plants  grow  in  all  the  jars. 

(6)   what  very  important  food  is  in  all  the  jars. 

(c)    in  which  jar  the  plant  does  best. 

(c?)  how  the  food  materials  are  scattered  through  the 

plant  body  in  each  jar,  and  what  process  aids  the 

diffusion. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS.  67 

What  hinders  an  equal  diffusion  of  food  throughout  the 
plant  tissues  ? 
Ans.    Chemical  changes  that  happen  as  soon  as  food 
touches  tissue   hinder  an  equal  diffusion   of  food 
matters. 

Exercise  II. 

1.  Try  a  simple  experiment  with  plant  foods,  and  state 

results  from  plant  growth. 

2.  Write  a  reason  why  pond  or  river  water  is  a  tonic  for 

plant  life. 

3.  Name  a  food  material  absorbed  from  the  air. 

4.  Mention  one  reason  for  the  unequal  transportation  of 

most  foods  among  tissue  masses. 
Ans.    Unequal  extensions  of  the  plant  body  by  growth. 

5.  Write  in  statements  a  description  of  internal  changes, 

with  the  reason  why  they  are  inevitable  in  a  certain 
order  of  plants.     Name  the  order. 
Ans.    The  higher  order. 

Exercise  III. 

(Just  before  the  hour  is  up.) 

Correct  all  mistakes  made  in  Exercise  II.     Place  the 
correct  statements  on  the  blackboard. 


G8  A   PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

c. 

STARCH. 

1.  By  what  is  food  material  used? 

Food  material  is  used  hy  the  protoplasm^  and  generally  at 
once  ;  tlius^  — 

Water  is  at  once  made  use  of. 

2.  What  has  to  be  done  with  the  food  for  the  green  parts 

of  plants  ? 

It  has  to  be  broken  up  and  tvorked  over  inside  the  plant  body. 

3.  What  is  the  new  food  material  called  ? 

It  is  starch;  and  the  working  over  is  called  starch-making. 
Starch-making  goes  on  in  chlorophyll  grains  in  all 
the  green  parts  of  plants. 

4.  Oil^  instead  of  starchy  is  manufactured  in  the  chlorophyll 

grains  of  certain  plants. 

5.  Spell  and  define  chlorophyll^  chlorophyll  grain. 

What  is  necessary  for  starch-making? 

Sunlight  and  chlorop>hyll  masses  are  necessary  for  starch- 
making.  Parts  of  2^1  ants  devoid  of  chlorophyll  make 
no  starchy  and  chlorophyll  masses  are  unable  to  manu- 
facture starch  in  darhiess. 

What  is  done  during  the  dark  hours? 

The  new  food  material  —  that  is,  starch  —  is  digested^  and 
transported  to  all  jxirts  of  the  plant  body. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS.  69 

Starch  is  changed  during  digestion  to  liquid  matters^  in 
order  that  it  may  thus  rise  very  easily  in  the  tissues, 
Ca7ie  sugar  is  one  of  the  watery  f onus  of  starch. 

How  Foods  are  Stored. 

Write  a  statement  about  the  potato. 
How  is  a  potato  filled  with  starch  ? 

The  potato  leaves  make  starch  in  sunlight.  In  the  night 
starch  is  changed  to  a  liquid  food^  and  is  sent  through- 
out the  ijlant  stems.  In  the  underground  stem  (po- 
tato) the  liquid  food  turns  to  starch  again. 

Why  is  starch  stored  in  the  potato  ? 

Describe  a  starch  cupboard  that  is  not  an   underground 

cell. 
Tell  what  the  castor  bean  stores. 
Why  is  any  sort  of  food  material  reserved  in  stems  or 

seeds  ? 
What  will  they  sometimes  feed? 
At  what  time  will  they  be  needed? 
Name   and   describe    the   making   of  an   important   food 

stored  by,  — 

(a)  the  artichoke,  with  particular  mention  of  the 
points  of  the  plant  where  the  material  is  first  manu- 
factured, and  of  a  change  which  takes  place  after- 
wards to  aid  diffusion. 

(J)  kernels  of  green  corn.  Taste  them,  and  name 
the  material  which  tastes  sweet.  Is  this  starch  or 
liquid  food? 

(c)  a  mustard  seed ;  tell  a  use  of  the  plant  food  stored 
in  it,  and  why  the  seed  is  a  good  cupboard. 


70  A    PEIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

((7)  flaxseed. 

(f)   some  plant  with  which  you  are  familiar. 

Name  parts  of  plants  which  cannot  make  starch  or  oily- 
matters. 

Give  a  reason  for  such  failure ;  tell  the  case  of  leaves  and 
similar  plant  organs  in  darkness. 

Write  a  statement  about  the  way  plants  store  foods,  and 
name  two  plants  which  store  them  in  different 
tissue  masses. 


USE   OF  RESERVE   MATERIALS. 

1.  Copy  the  following  statement :  — 

The  sweet  taste  of  kernels  of  growing  corn  shows  that 
the  starch  has  changed  into  sugar. 

(rt)  What  taste  has  a  kernel  of  green  corn  ?  What  does 
the  second  part  of  the  statement  show  ? 

(5)  Which  words  name  food  materials  ?  Define  the  word 
starch  in  the  statement. 

(c)    Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  word  sugar. 

Starch  is  changed  into  sugar  for  the  nourishment  of 
growing  plants. 

2.  In   each  of  the  following,  mention  the  change  which 

has  taken  place,  and  mark  the  words  that  made 
you  aware  of  it :  — 

The  sugar  beet  is  eaten. 

The  piece  of  cane  is  sweet. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS.  71 

The  bud  has  a  sweet  taste. 
There  is  sugar  in  an  onion. 

In  the  following,  fill  the  blanks  with  words  that  show 
why  starch  is  changed  to  sugar ;  — 

Starchy  seeds  feed with . 


Starch  is  too to  penetrate masses. 

Watery diffuse  throughout  the . 

The  sweet of  maple  shows  the  presence  of 

changed  to . 


When  reserve  material  is  used,  the  starch  suffers  a 
chang-e  exactly  like  that  upon  leaving  chloroiJhyll 
grains.     It  becomes  a  fluid  food  again. 

Exercise  I. 
Use  in  sentences,  — 

starch,  squash  seed,  buds, 

sugar,  potato,  twigs, 

oil,  chlorophyll  grains,  bulbs. 

Observe  the  qualities  of  underground  stems,  bulbs,  roots, 
and  fruits  which  you  see  at  home,  and  try  to  rightly  express 
the  food  materials  which  they  store,  and  how  the  plants 
break  up  their  reserve  foods  before  making  use  of  them. 

Exercise  II. 

Use  words  that  denote  plant  foods,  as  starchy  substances^ 
rigari/  substances^  watery  substances^  in  statements  which 
show  whence  these  foods  are  drawn,  where  manufactured, 
and  whether  stored  in  a  solid  or  watery  state. 


72  A   PRIMEK   OF   BOTANY. 

Cautions.  —  1.  All  pai-ts  of  plants  may  digest  starchy  store 
reserve  material^  and  use  food  matters  for  their  tis- 
sues ;  as,  the  root  eats ;  pond  scum  grown  in  the 
dark  digests  food ;  a  flower  petal  uses  food  material. 

2.  Starch-making  goes    on   m   the   green  parts .  of  plants 

only;  much  starch  is  made  iii  the  leaves;  no  starch 
is  produced  hy  flowers. 

3.  Parts    of  plants   ivhich    are    not  green  do   exactly  like 

chlorophyll-hearing  parts  in  the  darkness;  that  is, 
they  digest  ivhatfood  they  can  obtain.  But  you  see 
how  dependent  they  are  upo7i  the  green  organs. 

Exercise  III. 

(With  the  Teacher.) 
O:^^  The  teacher  may  vary  the  tasks  by  a  familiar  talk,  or  by  some 
simple  puzzle  play  about  plants.    The  following  method,  adapted  from 
a  text-book  upon  another  subject,  is  a  very  good  one. 

A.  Each  of  you  think  of  a  cupboard  of  reserved  plant 

food,  of  its  taste  or  its  quality.  Do  not  tell  any 
one  what  it  is.  As  you  name  its  taste  (or  use 
words  which  express  its  size  or  appearance  or  other 
qualities),  I  will  write  the  words,  and  the  class  may 
see  how  many  can  guess  the  name  of  the  cupboard. 

B.  When   the  pupil  called  upon  has  finished   describing 

the  object,  refer  to  the  items  on  the  board,  and  ask, 
Who  can  guess  what  it  is  that  "grows  underground" ; 
"may  be  big  or  little  " ;  "is  full  of  starch  and  is  good 
to  eat";  that  is  "small  and  hard  and  shiny";  "holds 
very  much  oil"  ;  "is  not  nice  to  taste  or  handle"; 
"is  very  small";  "bread  is  made  of  it"?  When 
the  cupboard  has  been  named,  refer  to  the  board 
and  verify  or  correct. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF   PLANTS.  73 

c.  Refer  to  the  words  and  describe  the  plants  to  which 
they  belong.  Review  the  tissues  of  which  the 
plants  are  made. 


E. 

TEMPERATURE. 

A  lowest  temperature. 
A  highest  temperature. 
A  best  temperature. 

There  are  three  temperatures  which  should  be  studied 
for  every  plant;  namely,  lowest,  best,  highest. 
Plants  can  live  only  between  the  lowest  and 
highest  temperatures. 

1.  What  is  the  highest  plant  temperature  ? 

The  temperature  beyond  which  activity  ceases. 

2.  What  is  the  best  temperature  ? 

The  temperature  at  Avhich  the  plant  thrives  perfectly. 

3.  What  is  the  lowest  temperature  ? 
That  below  which  activity  ceases. 

4.  Tell  the  effect  upon  house  plants  of  the  temperature 

of,- 

a  January  da}^         boiling  water, 

a  hot  oven,  a  cold  March  wind. 

The  lowest  temperature  for  plants  is  from  the  freezing 
point  of  icater  to  60°  above  it.     Some  plants  live  at  a 


74  A   PRIMER   OF    BOTANY. 

lower  temperature  than  others.  The  temperature 
varies^  too,  for  the  different  parts  of  the  p)lant ;  thus, 
a  root  will  live  at  a  lower  temperature  than  a  leaf. 
The  highest  temperature  for  plants  is  fror)i  95°  to  120°, 
varying  for  different  plants,  aiid  for  different  parts 
of  the  same  plant. 

5.  Measure  the  temperature  and  describe  the  plant  life  of 

pond  water  in  spring,  when  water  plants  begin  to 
grow ;  of  cold  springs  in  which  plants  are  found. 

6.  Notice  in  the  newspaper  the  average  daily  temperature 

while  tree  buds  are  opening  in  the  spring.  Com- 
pare it  with  the  average  daily  temperature  during 
the  ripening  of  the  fruit. 

The  best  temperature  varies  more  than  the  lowest  or  the 
highest.  Some  plants  pass  their  lives  in  air  hut  little 
above  the  freezing  point ;  thus,  — 

The  red  snow  plant  often  covers  the  snow  in  higher 

latitudes. 
It  grows  on  mountain  summits  in  low  latitudes. 

7.  Plant  in  two  pots   seeds  of  barley   or   Indian   corn. 

Leave  one  pot  in  a  cold  cellar,  and  put  the  other  in 
a  warmed  room.  To  find  the  best  temperature, 
compare  the  growth  of  the  plants  in  the  two 
pots. 

8.  Why  are  the  leaves  of  trailing  arbutus  stiff,  homely, 

and  unattractive  ? 

9.  What  reduces  early  water  plants  to  a  brown  scum  on 

water,  or  to  a  brown  coat  on  stones? 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS.  75 

The  best  temperature  for  laiid  plants  varies  just  as  in  the 
case  of  the  lowest  and  highest.  The  best  temp)erature 
for  roots  is  lotver  than  that  for  the  plant  above  ground^ 
a7id  the  best  temperature  for  steins  and  leaves  is  lower 
than  that  for  fruits. 

10.  Mention  two  plants  that  need,  — 

a  very  high  temperature. 
a  very  low  temperature, 
a  middling  temperature. 

11.  Name   a  plant  which  outlives   early  autumn   frosts. 

What  does  its  extended  life  prove  about  its  best 
temperature  ? 

Test  Exekcise. 

What  have  you  learned  about  the  temperatures  of  plants  ? 
Apply  the  three  temperatures  in  statements  which  show 
how  vitally  they  affect  plant  life. 

The  Death  of  a  Plant. 

What   happens   when   the    temperature   falls   below   a 
certain  point? 

Ans.    The  plant  dies. 

Explain  its  death. 

A  plant  dies  when  the  substance  of  the  protoplasm 
stiffens.  Loss  of  power  to  absorb  water  results, 
and  the  cell-walls  lose  shape,  and  collapse. 

The  tissues  of  watery  plants  and  of  most  fleshy  ones 
suffer  most  quickly  in  extremes  of  temperature. 


76  A    PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

Underline  the  names  of  leaves  and  stems  which  feel  the 
first  frosts  keenly :  — 

a  squash  leaf,  an  apple  leaf, 

a  potato  stem,  rose  geraniums, 

leaves  of  the  butternut,         violets. 

The  results  beyond  the  limits  of  the  highest  tempera- 
ture are  exactly  like  those  produced  by  too  cold 
air.  Either  result  is  a  species  of  burn.  In  either 
case,  watery  cells  are  the  first  injured. 

Notes.  — (r/)  Plants  asleep  in  dry  seeds  can  be  kept  in 
almost  any  degree  of  low  temperature ;  but 
when  they  break  their  tight  blanket  and  sprout, 
the  tissues  of  the  sprout  absorb  much  water,  and 
the  plant  dies  in  a  temperature  lower  than  about 
30°  above  the  freezing  point. 

Sprout  beans  or  peas,  and  prove  this  by  experiment. 

(6)  The  boundary  systems  of  the  ripened  parts  of 
native  trees  and  shrubs  usually  endure  extreme- 
ly cold  w  eather  ;  but  — 

The  young  shoots  and  tender'  leaves  of  large  trees  and  shrubs 
are  easily  killed  by  spring  frosts  ;  as, — 

the  developing  horse-chestnut  bud. 
any  bursting  winter  bud. 

Tell  what  temperature,  medium,  low  or  high,  is  the  best 
temperature  for  these  plants :  — 

red  seaweed,     the  apple  tree,  magnolias, 

kelp,  a  cactus,  edelweiss, 

moulds,  a  prickly  pear  plant,   life  everlasting. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS.  77 

Which  of  the  above  possess  boundaiy  systems  suited  to 
northern  winters  ? 

Which  of  the  above  would  be  most  quickly  affected  by 
extreme  temperatures;  i.e.,  temperatures  beyond 
the  highest  or  lowest  limits  which  bound  the  plant's 
activity?  If  the  plants  are  watery,  give  a  special 
reason  for  their  sensitiveness. 

Cliemical  cliaiigres  begin  at  once,  as  soon  as  extreme 
cold  or  heat  touches  watery  ceHs.  The  tissues 
lose  form  very  rapidly. 

Write  statements  describing  the  apparent  best  temperature 
for  three  plants  at  home,  or  in  the  school  yard,  or 
in  a  park. 

Things  to  Kemember.  —  1.  That  a  plant  freezes  because 
the  umter  in  the  cell-walls  and  in  the  protoplasm 
turns  to  icicles.  You  have  been  taught  that  this 
water  is  not  pure,  but  holds  many  plant  foods.  It 
ivill  bear  a  lower  temperature  than  tvill  pure  water. 
Very  rarely  is  any  plant  comp)letely  frozen. 

2.  Many  frozen  plajits  2vill  survive  if  thaived  slowly. 
Many  fleshy  tissues  (fruits}  are  not  injured  by 
freezing,  but  by  rapid  thawing.  Thaw  frozen  apples 
in  ice-ivater. 

Tests. 

(1) 

1.  Mention  a  temperature,  and  name  three  plants  whose 

best  temperature  it  appears  to  be. 

2.  Change  the  temperature  so  that  it  will  show  (a)  the 

lowest  temperature  for  the  plants  named ;  (b')  the 
highest  temperature  for  their  activity. 


78  A   PEIMEE    OF   BOTANY. 

(2) 

Illustrate  hoAv  the  best  temperature  varies  for  roots, 
leaves,  and  flowers  of  the  same  plant ;  how  it  varies  for — ■ 

two  water  plants, 
two  land  plants. 

Locate  the  plants  given  as  examples.  Give  your  idea  of 
their  lowest  and  highest  temperatures,  judging  from  the 
climates  in  which  they  are  found. 

(3) 

1.  Define  the  words  lotvest,  best,  and  highest  temperatures, 

2.  Copy  from  a  book  or  newspaper  the  names  of  five 

plants. 

3.  Study  their  location  and  habits,  and  write  after  each 

what  you   think   may  be   their  lowest,  best,    and 
highest  temperatures. 

4.  Describe  variations  of  lowest  and  highest  temperatures, 

and  name,  — 

(a)  that  part  of  the   plant  which  will  bear  a  lower 

temperature  than  other  parts. 
(5)  that  part   of  the   plant  which   requires  a  higher 

temperature  than  other  parts. 

5.  What  is  the  lowest  temperature  for  all  plants  ? 

6.  What  is  the  highest  temperature  for  plant  activity? 

(4) 

Describe  the  death  of  a  plant. 

Why  do  watery  tissues  suffer  quickly? 

Mention  similar  results  from  widely  different  conditions. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS.  79 

In  what  cases  will  plants  endure  very  low  temperatures? 
Describe  plant  life  in,  — 

a  seed,         winter  bud,         tree  trunk  or  branch. 

Why  do  few  plants  freeze  solidly?  Describe  the  con- 
dition of  the  water  in  their  tissues.  Tell  how  to  pre- 
serve, — 

a  chilled  shrub. 

a  frozen  cabbage. 

a  frost-bitten  apple. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

MOKE  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  PLANTS. 


LIGHT. 

1.  Read  the  following :  — 

(1)  House  plants  turn  toward  the  light. 

(2)  Moulds  grow  without  the  aid  of  light. 

(3)  Fruits  and  flowers  can  develop  in  darkness. 

(4)  Green  plants  directly  depend  upon  light. 

(5)  Light  helps  them  to  make  starch. 

(6)  Without  starch  green  plants  starve. 

2.  Mention  the  word  which  is  the  lesson. 

3.  What  plants  live  by  it  ? 

4.  What  plants  can  live  without  it  ? 

5.  Are  such  plants  of  a  high  or  low  order  ? 

6.  Name  the  parts  of  a  plant  which  grow  to  full  size  with- 

out light. 

7.  What  plant  food  can  be  made  by  light  only  ?    Of  what 

importance   is  this  food?     To  what  sort  of  plants 
indispensable  ? 

L   Without  Hg-lit,  green  plants  starve,  for  tliey  manu- 
facture starch  hy  it  only. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS.  81 

Note.  —  Plants  which  get  their  starch  from  other  plants 
can  live  in  the  dark.  Plants  which  live  upon  de- 
caying matters  grow  and  perfect  fruit  in  caves  and 
cellars. 

Tests. 

(1) 

Search  dark  cellars  and  host  plants  for  the  following, 
and  describe  their  condition  when  found  :  — 

(a)  fungi. 

(5)   mildew. 

(<?)    rust. 

(tf)  yeast  plants. 

(e)   slime  moulds. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  must  have  light :  — 

verbena  blossoms. 

a  leaf  of  verbena. 

a  root. 

stems  of  Indian  corn. 

flowers  of  Indian  corn  (tassels  and  silk). 

smut. 

(2) 

Box  up  a  flower-bearing  end  of  a  melon  vine,  exclude 
all  light,  and  watch  results. 

Report  the  development  of  the  flowers  in  respect  of 
size,  color,  shape,  and  strength. 

How  can  winter  pears  and  apples  ''ripen"  in  the  house? 


82  A   PKIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

B. 

MOVEMENTS  OF  PLANTS. 

Mention  visible  movements  of  the  following  plants,  and 
tell  when  they  occur :  — 

four  o'clock,  leaves  of  clover, 

sensitive  plant,  dandelions. 

What  is  true  of  all  plants  ? 

11.  Every  plant  can  move  itself.  Many  plants  are 
much  more  active  than  the  lowest  animals;  as, — 

sensitive  plants,  some  cassias. 

What  is  sufficient  to  irritate  a  sensitive  plant?     Where 
is  it  most  irritable  ? 
Ans.   In  its  younger  tissues. 

Note  to  Teacher.  —  Grow  sensitive  plants  in  the   schoolroom 
for  study.     Seeds  may  be  had  for  a  few  cents,  and  are  easily  grown. 

Is  the  sensitive  plant  an  exception  in  the  plant  world, 
or  an  intensified  example  of  a  power  owned  by 
every  plant  ? 

Describe  the  movements  of, — 

oxalis,  parsley,  a  strawberry  geranium, 

sunflowers,     the  water  lily,    fuchsia  leaves. 

Name  some  plant,  and  describe  its  movements  toward 
the  light,  away  from  the  light,  or  its  manner  of 
adjusting  itself  for  sleep. 

When  a  seed  sprouts,  how  does  its  root  always  move  ? 


THE   PHYSIOLOGY    OF   PLANTS. 


83 


Simde^v. 

III.  When  a  seed  sprouts,  the  little  root  tries  to  move 

in  circles  ;  thus,  — 

Sprout  a  bean,  and  fasten  it  carefully  under  a  cork  in  a 
bottle  of  water.  Watch  the  movements  of  the 
protruding  rootlets. 

IV.  The  tip  of  the   root  is   sensitive  to  pressure,  and 

when    it    touches    any    object,    bends    from    it. 


84  A    PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

Therefore  tbe  root  tip  guides  the  root  through 
the  ground,  avoiding  stones  and  hard  lumps. 
V.    Root  tips  are  sensitive  to  moisture,  and  are  always 
leading  the  roots  to  wet  places  in  the  soil. 

Write  five  statements  about  the  movements  of  roots  of 
plants,  and  describe  the  route  they  take  through 
the  earth. 

Tell  how  the  revolving  motion  of  the  root  aids  it  to 
find  soft  places  in  soil. 

Tell  whether  roots  are  often  found  in  true  spirals,  and 
think  of  a  reason  why  they  are  more  or  less  de- 
formed. 

VI.  Every  growing  shoot  and  every  flower  stalk  en- 
deavors to  grow  in  spirals  ;  thus,  — 

a  bean  stalk,  a  pea  plant. 

Tell  how  the  branches  of  the  following  grow :  — 

an  acacia  tree,       a  maple,         a  geranium  shrub, 
a  pine,  a  rose  tree,    blackberry  bushes. 

Write  two  statements  about  the  movements  of  growing 
stems  of  trees  and  shrubs,  and  of  annual  plants. 
QAnwaal  means  living  but  one  season ;  as,  migno- 
nette.) 

Describe  the  real  movements  of  any  large  tree,  as  to 
both  stem  and  root,  and  state  whether  we  can  see 
these  movements,  or  only  their  results. 

We  do  not  knoiv  why  groiving  imrts  of  plants  above  ground 
revolve.  There  may  he  preferences  in  air  currents 
and  densities  of  the  air.  The  ptlant  may  seek  these 
as  specially  good  points  for  spreading  out  its  leaves. 


THE   PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS. 


85 


Exercise  I. 

Name  a  plant  whose  name  signifies  "  turning  to  the  sun 

Give  another,  that  lives  away  from  the 
light. 

Mention    three    plants   which   change 
position  at  night. 

Make   notes   of  day   positions    of   the 
leaves  of  five  plants. 

Make  similar  notes  of  the  night  posi- 
tions of  the  same  plants. 

Are  all  plants  able  to  move  ? 

Name  parts  of  plants  that  seem  motion- 
less. 

Name   others  that  prove   they   are  in 
motion. 

Mention  a  plant  with  visible  movement. 

Tell  two  reasons  for  the  spiral  move- 
ments of  a  root. 


Sundew  Leaf  holding 
a  Fly. 


Exercise  II. 

1.  Draw  a  sketch  of  the  day  and  night  positions  of  a 

daisy. 

2.  Study  a  fuchsia  in  a  window,  and  write  an  account  of 

its  movements  toward  the  light. 

3.  Sow  seeds  in  a  window  box,  and  carefully  study  the 

tiny  plants  that  appear.  Make  notes  of  your  work, 
and  embody  these  notes  in  a  composition  about 
plant  movements,  marking  particularly,  — 

(a)  any  stems  or  runners  that  bend  away  from  the 
light.  By  experiment  prove  the  plant's  persistence 
in  its  habit. 


86  A    PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

(^)   leaves  and  stems  which  turn  towards  the  light. 
((?)    differences  of  position  during  waking  and  sleeping 

states.      The  bean  family  are    excellent   examples 

for  this  study. 

4.  Sprout  cabbage  seeds,  and  examine  the  first  leaves  of 
the  seedlings.  These  first  leaves,  by  the  way,  are  al- 
ways called  in  botanical  works  cotyledons.   Mark, — 

(rt)  their  positions  by  day. 

(/>)   their  positions  by  night. 

(/)   if  they  invariably  rise  at  night. 


c. 

MORE   ABOUT  THE   MOVEMENTS   OF  PLANTS. 

Describe  the   particular  form   of  movement    which    you 
found  was  possessed  by,  — 

oxalis,  the  heliotrope, 

the  strawberry  geranium,        roots  of  beans. 

Mention    the    general   law  of  movement   of   all  growing 
roots  and  stems. 

The  law  of  progress  in  sx>irals  is  inodifiecl  by  certain 
influences;  as, — 

At  night  the  leaflets  of  oxalis  bend  down  and  cling 

about  the  stalk. 
At   night   clover  leaflets   fold   to   one  side  and  bend 

upwards. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF    PLAXTS. 


87 


The  leaves  of  most  plants  take  a  different  position  at 
night.  Their  growth  in  spirals  may  be  hindered 
by  the  withdrawal  of  strength-giving  liglit. 

Strong  light  stimulates  *  plants  so  much  that  they 
bend  towards  it.  Their  perfect  progress  is  thus 
destroyed. 

Dictate  a  statement  which  shall  describe  a  motion  common 
to  all  plants. 

Change  the  statement  so  as  to  cor- 
rectly give  two  hindrances 
to  the  plant's  power  to  de- 
scribe circles. 

How  does  the  turning  stems  to 
the  light  prove  their  origi- 
nal circular  movement  ? 

Leaves  and  stems  move  in  a  zig- 
zag course  toward  the 
li«ht. 

*       *  Pitcher  Plant. 

Is  the  course  ever  a  straight  line  ? 

Nearly  a  straight  line,  at  times,  in  a  flood  of  light. 

Give  from  your  observation  the  amount  of  light  (as 
common  daylight,  noonday  sun,  hot  rays  on  glass, 
etc.)  necessary  to  turn  a  stalk  or  leaf  from  its 
course,  to  bend  it  visibly  toward  the  light,  and  to 
draw  it  out  in  a  straight  line. 

Pin  a  sprouting  bean  with  the  rootlets  upward.     Which 

way  will  they  grow  ? 


*  !N'oTE  TO  Teacher.  —  Ex.^\3iui  stimulates. 


88  A   PKIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

Roots  of  ordinary  plants  Avill  always  bend  toward  the 
earth ;  as,  — 

the  rootlets  of  strawberry  plants. 

the  edible  roots  which  we  draw  from  the  ground. 

VII.  Turning  toAvard  the  light  and  turning  toward 
the  earth  both  depend  on  the  continuous  motion 
of  the  plant.  This  motion  is  as  tireless  as  are 
our  heart-beats,  during  every  minute  of  the 
plant's  life. 

Hard  substances  in  the  soil  will  modify  the  spiral  move- 
ments of  roots,  and  places  of  much  moisture  will  have  the 
same  deflecting  fascination  which  light  has  for  stems  and 
leaves. 

Gkavitation,  —  a  force  ^vhic^l  keeps  yon.  and  me  upon  the 
earthy  —  draws  roots  down.,  and  modifies  their  circular 
sweep). 

Test  I. 

How  do  leaves  and  stems  usually  move  toward  the  light  ? 

Which  way  will  roots  always  bend  ? 

Make  a  statement  about  the  influence  which  modifies 
growth  in  spirals  in  the  case  of,  — 

a  root,  cotyledons  of  cabbage, 

a  clover  leaf,      flowers  of  four  o'clocks, 

heliotrope,  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  dandelion. 

Change  the  statement  so  as  to  mention  some  other  plant. 
Read  the  following  list  of  plants,  — 

date  palms,  anemones,  lilacs, 

trailing  arbutus,  orchids,  seaweeds. 

and  tell  in  each  case  towards  what  the  root  bends. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS. 


89^ 


Correct,  — 

(r^)  Plants  are  motionless. 

(5)    The  thick-walled  tissues  of  plants  are  most  sensi- 
tive. 
((j)    The  sensitive  plant  does  not  shrink  when  touched. 
(c?)  Leaves  and  stems  hurry  in  straight  lines  toward 
the  light. 

Test  II. 

Tell  what  parts  of  what  plant,  — 
move  in  circles. 

are  weakened  by  the  withdrawal  of  sunlight, 
are  greatly  influenced  by  bright  light, 
seek  soft  places  in  the  soil, 
lead  roots  to  spots  of  moisture. 

Test  III. 

Describe  the  movements  of  the  root  and  stem  of  a 
heliotrope,  and  state  what  is  the  basis  of  any  sort 
of  particular  movement  of  any  plant. 

What  certain  rule  for  the  direction  of  ordinary  rootlets  ? 

AVhat  causes  this  certainty? 

Define  gravitation,  and  use  it  in  a  written  statement  about,  — 

((?)  three  objects  in  the  schoolroom  ;  as,  chair,  desk. 

(/))  three  objects  in  the  street,  or  in  a  shop,  or  in 
the  school-yard. 

(c)  a  horse  hauling  a  load  or  drawing  a  carriage  ;  a 
cow  standing  under  a  tree. 

(cZ)  teacups  upon  the  table;  the  china  in  the  cup- 
board; the  stove  upon  the  floor. 

(^)    water  in  the  ocean,  or  in  a  river,  or  in  a  Avell. 

(/)  the  roots  of  plants. 


90  A    PKIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

In    other   statements,    describe   its    liindering   force  with 

regard  to  the  law  of  plant  movement  in  curves. 
Give    reasons    for    other   hindering   forces    to  .the   spiral 

movement  of  roots. 
How  do  leaves  and   stems   usually  move   to   the   light? 

When  greatly  stimulated  ? 
Give  the  general  law  of  plant  movement.     Name  three 

modifying  influences.     Give  an  example  of  each. 
Describe  the  position  during  sleep  of,  — 

leaves  of  j  ^f  ^  ^^'         cotyledons  of  ]  ^^^^7' 
(  clover,  (  cabbage, 

sensitive  plants, 
flowers  of  the  water  lily. 

Use  these  descriptions  in  statements  (a)  telling  the  modi- 
fying influence,  (6)  describing  the  plant  action 
under  the  influence. 

Review. 

ORAL. 

1.  What  per  cent  of  water  in  a  higher  flowering  plant? 

In  seaweed  ?  What  parts  of  plants  are  abundantly 
supplied  with  water?  What  absorbs  it?  Why? 
Tell  its  oflice  in  cells.     In  cell-walls. 

2.  Define    a   cell-ivalL      How   and    where   do    cell-walls 

thicken  ? 

3.  Describe  the  condition  of  water  in  a  plant  body  during 

winter.     Give  three  disturbing  agencies  in  summer. 

How  is  Avater  a   plant  material?     How   is   water 

absorbed  by,  — 

deep-sea  plants? 

land  plants  and  parts  of  plants  above  water  ? 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    TLANTS.  91 

4.  Explain  these  terms :  — 

evaporation,  "  circulation  of  sap," 

breathing-pores,  perennials, 

movement  of  water  in  plants,    annuals. 

5.  Define  plant  food,  and  use  it  in  a  statement. 

6.  Give  two  statements  about  plant  food,  mentioning  (a) 

one  food  common  to  the  animal  and  plant  worlds ; 
(^)  habits  of  eating  of  different  plants. 

7.  Which  holds  the  most  food  materials,  well  water  or 

pond  water?  What  process  aids  the  transportation 
of  food?  Which  order  of  plants  has  a  complex 
diffusion  of  food  materials  ? 

8.  What    is    starch?       Where    is    starch-making    done? 

Name  other  products  made  in  the  green  parts  of 
some  plants. 

9.  Tell  how  («)  starch  is  of  use,   (5)  its  change   upon 

leaving  its  factory,  (c)  its  change  again  before 
storage.  Tell  ((x)  why  any  food  material  is  stored, 
(5)  upon  what  the  organs  which  have  no  chlorophyll 
depend. 

10.  (a)  Define  lowest^  best^  and  highest  temperatures. 

(5)   Give  the  lowest,  best,  and  highest  temperatures 

for  plants, 
(c?)    Illustrate    how   the   best  temperature    varies    for 

different  parts  of  the  same  plant. 
(d}  Would  green  plants  starve  without  light  ? 
(e)    Name  a  cousin  of  green  slime. 

Ans.    Med  S7101V  plant. 

(/)  What  plants  can  live  in  the  dark  ? 
(//)   Has  every  plant  the  power  of  nidti^ai? 


92  A   PKIMER    OF    BOTAISY. 

(/i)  Name  the  plant  having  this  power  in  the  highest 

degree. 
(z)    Give  the  real  direction  of  plant  movement, 
(y)  Mention    three   modifying   influences   over   plant 

movement. 

BLACKBOARD. 

1.  Write  a  proof  of  the  abundance  of  water  in  some  sea- 

weeds. 

2.  Write  the  composition  of  the  growing  point  of  a  plant. 

3.  Write  a  statement  that  tells  («)  agencies  which  dis- 

turb water  in  a  cell,  (^)  how  vacancies  in  cells  are 
filled. 

4.  Write  the  relative  rapidity  of  evaporation  in,  — 

a  wet  day, 
a  dry  noon, 
the  night. 

Write  a  definition  of  breathing-pores,  with  their  loca- 
tion. Use  the  word  breathing-pores  in  a  statement 
about  a  function  which  they  directly  control. 

5.  Write  carefully  the  reason  of  tlie  flow  of  sap  from  the 

sugar  maple. 

6.  Write  the  route  of  water  in  plant  structures.     Write 

Three  Things  to  Remember  about  water  in  plants. 

7.  Write  statements  telling  whence  the  following  obtain 

their  food :  — 

puff  balls,  red  seaweeds, 

pond  lily,  lichens, 

Venus's  fly-trap,  primroses, 

smuts,  mosses. 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    PLANTS.  93 

8.  Describe  in  writing  the  diffusion  of  plant  food,  telling 

(a)  a  reason  for  the  unequal  transportation  of  foods 
through  the  tissues,  (^)  what  great  food  holds 
man}^  other  foods  in  solution ;  that  is,  ynixed  inside 
its  otvn  structures. 

9.  Use  in  written  statements,  — 

starch,  squash  seed, 

sugar,  potato, 

chlorophyll  grain,      bulbs. 

10.  Write  a  paragraph  (a)  about  the  apparent  best  tem- 

perature of  three  common  plants  which  you  know, 
or  of  which  you  have  read;  (6)  about  their  con- 
tinuous movement,  its  direction,  and  whether  the 
movement  is  visible  to  your  unaided  eyes;  ((?) 
about  the  influence  of  light  upon  their  natural 
movement.  Add  the  names  of  plants  found  in 
cellars  and  caverns,  and  account  for  their  life  with- 
out light. 

11.  Which  requires  the  higher  temperature,  — 

tassels  and  silk  of  Indian  corn  ? 

the  blade  of  Indian  corn? 

the  root  of  Indian  corn  ? 

an  anemone  ? 

a  Jacqueminot  rose  ? 

an  aster  ? 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  PLANT  BODY. 


A. 

THE   PLANT   BODY. 

Green  slime,         pond  scum,         sea  lettuce,         kelp. 

The    simplest    plant   bodies    are   masses    of   houseless 

protoplasm. 
The  next  higher  are  plant  cells  living"  alone,  or  in  rows, 

or  in  cell  surfaces. 
I.    The  body  of  the  lowest  plants  has  no  root,  stem,  or 

leaf;  as, — 

yeast,  kelp, 

bacteria,  diatoms, 

slime  moulds,  black  mould. 

II.  Higher  plants  divide  as  they  grow  into  many  forms. 
Each  form  has  a  different  composition  and  par- 
ticular use ;  as,  — 

tendrils  of  pea,  flower  cluster  of  aster, 

thorn  of  plum,  tubers  of  potato. 

Caution.  —  Large  seaweeds  appear  to  he  develojjed  into 
stock  and  leaves ;  hut  the  division  is  somewhat  unreal^ 
as  in  spite   of  the  fact  that  the  poor  things  do  their 


THE    PLANT    BODY 


95 


best,  they  have  not  developed  very  good  stem  and  leaj 
systems  from  their  simple  structures. 

Tasks. 

(1) 

Study  with  the  microscope  examples  of  the  four  plants  at 
the  beginning  of  the  lesson. 

Do  these  plants  belong  to  high  or 
low  orders  ? 

Use  the  following   names  in  state- 
ments :  — 
yeast,     kelp,     black  mould. 

Write  the  statements  so  that  they 
will  tell  where  the  plants 
are  found. 
Use  the  following  names  of  plants 
in  statements,  telling  whether 
they  belong  to  high  or  low 
orders :  — 

the  water  lilies, 
linden  trees, 
Classify  these :  — 

red  seaweed, 
daffodils, 

(2) 
Write  an  example  of  the  simplest  plant  body. 
Tell   by   examination   whether   the   following   appear  to 
have  members :  — 

sea  lettuce,  rockweeds, 

kelp,  lichens. 


Irish  Moss. 


magnolias, 

the  rose  family. 

wheat  rust, 
barberries. 


96  A    PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

Write  the  name  of  a  plant  which  is  an  example  of,  — 

a  single  cell. 

Ia3^ers  of  cells. 

rows  of  cell  surfaces  resembling  leaves. 

Do  you  scrape  high  or  low  orders  of  plants  from  pepper 

grass  ?  grape  leaves  ?  garden  lettuce  ? 
Wiite  a  statement  about,  — 

large  seaweeds,     masses  of  mould,     rock  lichens. 

Correct  mistakes  of  fact :  — 

Yeast  belongs  to  a  high  order  of  plants. 
Geraniums  are  masses  of  naked  protoplasm. 
Rockweeds  have  roots,  stems,  and  leaves. 
White  rusts  are  entirely  marine. 
The  flowering  plants  have  undeveloped  bodies. 

(3) 
Tell  whether  the  plant  body  of  each  of  the  following  is 
one  or  many  celled ;  whether  it  has  one  or  many 
tissues ;  and  if  it  is  memberless  or  not :  — 

(a)  a  pine  tree. 

(^)  red  rust  upon  oats  or  barley. 

(c)    "  cedar  apples  "  on  red  cedar  twigs. 

(cZ)  a  fuchsia  plant. 

((?)    the  mosses. 

Tell  which  plants  are  of  high  orders,  and  which  of  the 

low  orders. 
Of  what  is  the  lowest  order  of  plants  made  ? 
Define  protoplasm.     In  what  is  it  usually  boxed  ? 


THE    TLANT    BODY.  97 

Write  upon  the  board  a  statement  containing  the  name 
of  a  very  simple  plant,  and  of  a  very  complex  and 
high-ranking  plant.  Write  another  statement,  with 
all  the  points  of  difference  between  them  which 
you  can  notice. 


B. 

STEMS. 

A  potato  is  an  underground  stem. 
The  so-called  root  of  a  gladiolus  is  a  fleshy  stem. 
A  strawberry  plant  is  a  prostrate  stem. 
''Sweet  flag-root"  is  a  fleshy^  underground  stem. 


Passion  Flower. 

Does  a  plant  in  its  earliest  stage  possess  a  stem  ?     When 

does  the  stem  develop? 
It  is  a  member  of  what  ? 
Ans.    The  plant  body. 
Are  all  members  of  the  stem  like  or  unlike  in  the  earliest 

stage  of  stem  life  ? 
Prove  your  decision  by  bulb  stems,  and  by  stems  upon 

which  flowers  rest. 


98  A   PKIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

Describe  any  familiar  common  stem. 

Tell  how  a  potato  differs  from  an  aerial  stem. 

Give  another  example  of  stems  thickened  into  fleshy  knobs. 

Give    differences    between    the    underground   stem    of  a 

gladiolus  and  that  of  a  potato. 
Give  the  common  name  of  prostrate  stems. 
Describe  a  runner,  and  give  an  example. 
How  does  the  stem  called  "  sweet  flag-root "  differ  from 

the  underground  stems  above  mentioned  ? 
Study  a  specimen  with  joints  and  branches.     Blood-root 

is  a  good  example. 

1.  Branches  are   stems  develoj^ed  from  other  stems.      The 

usual  stem   is   a   bundle    of  tissue    systems  plainly 
arranged  for  strength^  and  hearing  leaves. 

2.  A  runner  is  a  weak  and  trailing  stem;  as,  the  strawberry 

plant. 

3.  A  root  stock  is   a  fleshy^  tveak^  generally  underground 

stem,  developing  horizontally  with  branches;  as,  sweet 
flag. 

4.  Corms    are  fleshy,    underground,    leaf- 

bearing  ste7ns;  as,  the  crocus,  gladi- 
olus. 

5.  Tubers    are    stems  sivollen  to   knob-like 

reservoirs  of  plant  food.  They  are 
underground  stems  and  bear  small 
leaves  called  scales  ;  as,  the  potato. 

6.  Bulb  stems  are  underground  stems,  short 

and  leaf-b earing ;  as,  the  bulb  stem 

of  the  onion.  Tendrils. 

7.  Tendrils  are  slender,  air-growing  stems  made  so  largely 

of  fibrous  tissue  that  they  are  seldom  leaf-bearing. 


THE    PLANT    BODY. 


99 


8.  Thorns   are  thick^  aerial  stems  nearly  destitute  of  leaf 

material. 

9.  Flower  stems  are  aerial  and  usually  short.     From  them 

are  developed  leaves.,  floral  envelopes.)  and  the  very 
flowers. 


Task. 

Give  an  example  of,  — 

(a)  a  stem  which  is  named,  — 

(1)  a  corm. 

(2)  a  root  stock. 

(3)  a  bulb  stem. 

(4)  a  tendril. 

(5)  a  thorn. 


Iris. 


(5)  a  runner  ;  an  ordinary  stem. 

(c)  a  flower  stem.     Give  the  plant  members  developed 
by  the  flower  stem. 

Tell   what   you   have   learned  about  the  development  of 

stems  from  the  plant  body. 
Describe  the  condition  of  the  lowest  orders  of  plants. 
What  is  true  of  any  plant  in  its  youngest  stages  ? 
Give  the  proper  name  of,  — 

a  potato, 

"roots"  of  the  gladiolus, 

a  strawberry  plant, 

"  sweet  flag-root."  Potato. 

1.  Write  a  statement  about  the  stem  of  a  geranium. 

2.  Write  another,  about  the  runners  of  the  strawberry. 


100 


A    PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 


8.    Rightly  name,  spell,  and  write  the   *' roots"  of  blue 
grass. 

4.  Locate   the   real   roots    of    potato 

plants.  Write  clifterences  be- 
tween the  real  and  the  apparent 
roots. 

5.  Write  the  real  name  of  so-called 

crocus  roots. 

6.  Write  a  careful  description  of  the 

stem  which  produces  the  onion, 
with  its  proper  name. 

7.  Write  the  name  of  the  stems  by  which  Virginia  creep- 

ers climb. 

8.  Write  five  examples  of  flower  stems. 

9.  Describe  dwarfed,  rigid  stems  found  upon  rose  bushes. 


c. 

LEAVES. 

A.  A  leaf  is  a  broad  surface  designed  to  spread  as  much 
jylant  tissue  as  ^jossihle  in  the  air  and  the 
light.     It  isftdl  of  chlorophi/U  cells. 

Bracts  are  S7nall 
leaves^  ivith  or 
ivithout  chloro- 
phyll  stains. 

Scales  are  tough  and 
rigid  leaves  ivith- 
out chlorophyll  cells. 

Floral  envelopes  are  delicate  and  velvety  leaves.     They 
possess  more  or  less  chlorophyll. 


Sessile. 


Stalked. 


Sheathed. 


THE    PLANT    BODY. 


101 


Stamens  are  leaves  oddly  developed  into   stalky  pollen 

hox^  and  pollen. 
Ca7yels  are  leaves  folded  into 

slender  holders  of  polle7i. 

B.  At  the  bases  of  floiver  clusters 

of  golden  rod  or  asters  you 

I  ivill  find  bracts.     Buds  are 

protected  by  scales;  thus, — 

lilac    buds    are    wrapped    in     l/Z 
scales. 

Write  and  use,  — 

stamens,         carpels, 
floral  envelopes. 

^      -n     J.  r     -  J?  j>  1  Cowslip  I^eaf .        Flag  I^eaf . 

C.  Moot-hairs  are  forms  of  leaves  ; 

as,  the  root-hairs  of  a  radish. 

1.    Describe  the  floral  envelope  of  a  tulip,  a  rose,  a  butter- 
cup. 

The  stamens  and  carpels  make  up  the  true  floAver. 


Alternate 
Arrangement. 


Opposite 
Arrangement. 


TTliorled 
Arrangement. 


2.    Describe  the  true  flower  of  an  anemone  or  a  lily.     The 
stamens  are  forms  of  what?     The  carpels? 


lu: 


A   PKIMEK   OF   BOTANY. 


fh 


Needle-shaped.        Linear. 


V 


y/ 


Oblong. 


Oval. 


Rotund. 


Ovate. 


Heart-shaped. 


Kidney-ehaped.    Lance-shaped.  Broad-blade-  Spear-shaped.    Arrow-shaped, 
shaped. 


Shapes  of  Leaves. 


THE    PLANT    BODY. 


103 


About  what  forms  is  this  lesson?  Are  all  these  forms 
true  leaves,  or  equivalents  of  true  leaves?  Give 
the  names  and  shapes  of  six  true  leaves. 


D. 

ROOTS. 

Name  a  root,  and  tell  me  something  about  it ;  as,  beets 
are  thick,  long  roots. 


Root-Sheath  in 
Duckweed. 

R.  root. 
R.S.  root-sheath. 


Fibrous  Root. 


Tuberous  Root. 


Tap  Root. 


State  something  about,  — 

a  turnip,     grass  roots. 


roots  of  the  buttercup. 


Tell  me  how  roots  of  trees  and  shrubs  differ  in  appearance 

from  these. 
Roots  of  trees  are  woody,  and  have  numerous  branches. 

Roots  of  buttercups  grow  in  clusters.     Grass  roots 

are   like   matted   threads.      A    turnip   is   a   short, 

swollen  root. 


104  A    PKIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

Wliere  are  all  these  roots  found? 

111.    All  common  roots  are  found  in  the  soil, 

I\".    Tlie  roots  of  a  young'  plant  appear  later  than  stems 

and  leaves.     They  are  found  only  in  high  orders 

of  plants. 

A  root  is  a  development  of  plant  tissues  for  food-conducting 
p)ur poses.     Incidentalli/,  it  is  a  means  of  locatio7i. 

V.  Roots  sometimes  live  in  the  light  and  air.  These 
are  aerial  roots.  Visit  a  greenhouse  and  study 
the  aerial  roots  of  orchids.  Notice  the  greatly 
thickened  skin. 

VI.  Roots  of  plants  living  off  other  plants  are  found  above 
ground.  Their  rootlets  bury  themselves  in  their 
hosts. 

Read   the   following   list.      Copy   all   names   of  plants 
having  underground  roots:  — 

(1)  radish,  (6)  orchids, 

(2)  grass,  (7)  lichen, 

(3)  mistletoe,  (8)  dodder  vine, 

(4)  lady's  slipper,  (9)  grain, 
(5j  cabbage,  (10)  maples. 

Draw  a  line  under  the  names  of  plants  with  aerial  roots; 
with  parasitic  roots.     Parasite  means  living  upon  another. 


CHAPTER  X. 

LIFE  MB  HOME  OF  PLANTS. 


HOW  LONG  PLANTS  LIVE. 

(a)  Animals  die  in  autumn. 

(h)   Perennials  survive  the  winter. 

(rt)  The  sweet  pea  is  an  annual. 
(^)   Peonies  are  perennials. 

Plants  that  live  l>ut  one  year  are  called  Annuals, 

The  word  i^ere^mia?  means  "  living-  through  the  year  " : 
currant  shrubs  are  perennials. 

Most  plants  are  very  short-lived.  Most  of  the  plants 
we  see  about  us  die  before  cold  weather. 

Plants  are  constantly  dying  and  are  constantly  spring- 
ing up  all  over  the  Avorld. 

Speak  the  names  of  the  following  plants;  as  you  give 
each,  mention  whether  it  is  an  annual  or  perennial 
plant:  — 

oleander,  hyacinth, 

Japanese  quince,       day  lily, 
lady's  slipper,  phlox. 


106 


A   PKIMER   OF   BOTANY 


Rye  Grass. 


Timothy. 


Sand  Grass. 

It  has  been  used  in 
Holland  for  check- 
ing encroachments 
of  the  sea. 


LIFE    AND    HOME    OF    PLANTS.  107 

Tell  which  of  these  perennials  outlive  the  others :  — 


currant  shrub, 
cactus ; 

onion, 
calla ; 

peony, 
aloe  ; 

grass, 
palms ; 

dahlia, 
century  plant; 

elm, 
yew. 

Sometimes  plants  die  more  rapidly  than  they  are 
renewed.     In  time,  such  plants  become  extinct. 

''''Extinct "  means  not  found  in  the  world. 

Sometimes  new  forms  of  plants  appear,  and  species  of 
plants  become  very  much  changed  ;  thus,  in  our 
time,  the  tulips  are  made  to  vary  extremely  by 
cultivation. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  are  cultivated  varieties,  and 
what  varieties  tend  to  do  :  — 

sweetbrier  rose,        "  black  roses,"        violets, 
Marechal  Niel,  "  black  tulips,"       pansies. 

You  have  seen  fossil  plants  imbedded  in  sections  of 
rocks.  Going  backward  in  time,  plants  grow  more  and 
more  like  them,  and  less  and  less  like  those  we  see.  The 
diatoms  of  deep-sea  ooze  were  once  the  plant  world.  The 
relations  of  the  grasses,  the  oaks,  and  the  maples,  and  all 
the  food-furnishers  date  back  to  the  age  when  the  "  chalk 
cliffs  of  Albion  "  were  formed.  The  lilies  are  old ;  so  are 
orchids.  The  coal  we  burn  is  the  dead  wood  of  long 
centuries  of  giant  ferjis. 


108  A    PRIMER    OF    BOTANY. 

Write  at  dictation,  and  use  in  statements  about  their 
special  points  and  values, — 

Names  of  plants  that  live  one  or  two  years,  — 

potato,  tobacco, 

cucumber,  mints, 

cotton,  heliotrope, 

poppies. 

Names  of  plants  lasting  many  years,  — 

(1)  birch,  (6)   ..^.tis, 

(2)  maples,  (7)  quinine  tree, 

(3)  willows,  (8)  cat-tails, 

(4)  cranberries,         (9)  palms, 

(5)  huckleberries,  (10)  rushes. 

Test  I. 

WRITTEN. 

Write  a  word  that  is  a  name,  — 

of  an  annual. 

of  a  plant  that  lives  many  years. 

Write  six  names  of  plants  in  the  yard  at  home,  or  in 
the  schoolroom,  and  tell  if  they  are  varieties  pro- 
duced by  cultivation. 

Write  the  name  of  («)  a  variety  of  rose  produced  by 
cultivation ;  (b~)  a  variety  of  tulip.  Describe  in 
writing  a  wild  rose. 

Define  in  writing  a  floral  envelope.  Use  this  name  in 
a  statement  defining  the  differences  of  the  floral 
envelopes  of  wild  and  cultivated  roses. 

Write  the  name  of  a  plant  often  found  in  coal. 


LIFE    AND    HOME    OF    PLANTS. 


109 


Write  a  statement  about  the  character  of  the  plant  world 

in  the  early  ages  of  our  earth. 
What  orders  of  the  plants  of  our 

time    seem     most    like    the 

fossils  ? 

Loiv  orders  of  present  plants  are 
much  like  the  fossils.  The 
diatoms  still  cling  to  sub- 
merged sticks  and  stones^  and 
are  dredged  from  deep-sea 
water. 


(«) 


GO 


Test  IT. 

OKAI.. 

Water  moulds  are  generally 
found  attached  to  the  bodies 
of  dead  fishes. 

Have  mosses  roots? 

Seeds  of  grasses  have  a  copious 
starchy  deposit, 
(c?)  Bananas  furnish  great  quanti- 
ties of  food, 
(e)   Sea  lettuce  is  common  along  the 
coast. 

Underline  the  names  of  long-lived 
plants. 

Draw  two  lines  under  the  names 
of  water  plants. 

Answer  the  question. 

Name  four  edible  seeds  of  grasses. 

What  climate  produces  bananas? 


Mat  Grass. 

It  has  been  found  so  useful 
for  binding  blowing  sand  that 
Acts  of  Parliament  have  been 
passed  prohibiting  its  destruc- 
tion under  severe  penalties." 


IIU 


A   PKIMER    OF    BOTANY. 


Test  III. 

WRITTEN. 

Write  statements  in  which  yon  use  correctly,  — 

life,     long,     short,     plants,     j^ears,     centuries ; 

the  name  of  a  very  long-lived  plant. 

a  short-lived  plant. 

a  plant  of  very  long  ago. 

a  plant  family  as  old  as  chalk. 


B. 


WHERE   PLANTS   MAY   LIVE. 

In  what  climate  are  plants  most  abundant? 
What  besides  temperature  controls  vegetation  ? 

Moisture  controls  vegetation. 


Primroses. 

Upon  what  does  temperature  depend  ? 

Much  upon  the  amount  of  light.  Tlie  poorly  lighted 
polar  circles  have  deficient  vegetable  life.  The 
ocean  depths  have  an  equally  scanty  number  of 
plants. 


LIFE   AND    HOME    OF    PLANTS. 


11] 


What  control  has  moisture  upon  land  plants  ? 

The  character  of  the  an- 
nual rainfall  great- 
ly determines  the 
conditions  of  land 
plants. 

Warmth,  and  the  direc- 
tion of  rivers  in  the  sea  — 
called  ocean  currents  — 
decide  the  types  of  both 
vegetable  and  animal  sea 
life. 

In  what  places  upon  the  earth  will  veQ;'etation  be  similar? 


3tarsh  Marigold. 

The  wild  marsh  marigold  shines  like  fire  in 
swamps  and  hollows  grej'." 


Vegetation   will   be   much   alike   in   all  parts   of   each 
climactic  belt. 


Exercise. 

(With  the  Teacher.) 

1.  Find  on  the  map  of  the  world,  — 

A  forest  region  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere  which  is  the 
counterpart  of  the  American  forest  region. 

2.  Of  what  in  our  country  is  the  steppe  region  of  Asia  a 

counterpart  ? 

3.  Give  two  points  of  resemblance  between  the  Californinn 

and  the  Mediterranean  regions. 

4.  To  what  does  the  plant  life  of  the  Pampas  to  a  great 

degree  correspond  ? 

5.  Why  is  the  same  sort  of  veo-etation  found  on  Prince 

William's  Land  and  upon  the  tops  of  the  Alps,  in 
the  heart  of  Europe  ? 


112 


A   PKIMER   OF   BOTANY. 


Pollen  3Iass.    Bee  after  Honey. 


Bees'  Heads  •with  Pollen. 

In  a  the  bee  withdraws  his  head  from  the 

flower. 
The  pollen  mass  falls  by  the  time  he  reaches 

another  into  the  position  6. 


Spotted  Orchis. 

Po.  pollen;  An.  anther;    St.  stigma. 

Explanation.  —  The  honey  is  in  the  spur  of  an  orchis,  or  a  nasturtium,  or  a  larkspur. 
A  bee  pushes  his  hollow  tongue  down  it  as  far  as  he  can,  and  withdraws  his  head 
decorated  with  the  two  pollen  masses  which  are  set  at  the  entrance.  He  deposits  them 
upon  the  stigma  of  the  next  flower  visited. 


Name  the  controlling  agents  which  developed  the  plant 
life  of  the  valley  of  tlie  Amazon  ;  the  period  of  coal 
in  a  long-past  age. 

Decide  whether  plants  of  high  or  low  orders  will  be 
most  widely  scattered  over  the  world. 

Give  a  reason  for  your  decision. 


APPENDIX. 


SOMETHING   ABOUT  MICROSCOPES. 

Microscopes  are  of  two  classes,  simple  and  compound, 
A  simple  microscope  produces  the  image  by  refraction 
through  a  single  convex  lens,  or  several  thin  lenses  placed 
togetlier  and  acting  as  a  single  lens.  In  the  compound 
microscope  a  very  bright  enlarged  image  is  made  by  a 
leus  or  a  combination  of  lenses  called  the  objective,  and 
this  image  is  viewed  and  again  magnified  by  means  of  a 
simple  microscope  called  the  eye-piece.  The  eye-piece  is 
placed  at  the  upper  end  of  the  brass  barrel,  or  working 
tube.  The  area  of  the  image  depends  upon  the  relative 
distances  of  the  objective  and  eye-piece,  so  that  the  instru- 
ment should  be  provided  with  a  "draw-tube,"  that  its 
magnifying  power  may  be  increased  without  a  change  of 
objective  or  eye-piece. 

The  essentials  of  a  good  practical  compound  microscope 
are  a  steady  stand,  provided  with  an  accurately  centred 
stage  to  which  the  glass  slips  can  be  attached ;  a  plano- 
concave mirror  that  can  be  swung  above  and  below  the 
stage  for  both  transmission  and  reflection  of  light ;  and  a 
working  barrel  with  draw-tube.  The  working  barrel 
should  be  provided  with  both  a  coarse  antl  fine  movement 
for  rapid  and  careful  adjustment  of  the  lenses  to  focus. 
Most  of  even  the  cheaper  stands  are  now  provided  with 


114  APPENDIX. 

the  "society  screw/'  This  should  be  insisted  upon  when 
purchasing,  in  order  that  objectives  of  any  make,  and  of 
the  better  as  well  as  the  clieaper  grades,  may  be  used  upon 
the  instrument  when  desired. 

A  stand  which  will  meet  every  requirement  of  this 
work,  and  be  fully  adequate  for  more  extended  research, 
together  Avith  one  good  eye-piece  can  be  purchased  for 
about  ^25.00.  To  this  should  be  added  two  objectives, 
one  with  a  1-inch  focus,  costing  -$6.00 ;  the  other,  a  -J-inch 
focus  at  a  cost  of  il6.00. 

A  pair  of  long,  pointed,  sharp  scissors,  several  needles 
inserted  in  wooden  handles,  and  a  shallow  glass  dish  are 
essentials  for  manipulating  tissues. 

Mounting.  It  is  necessary  for  success  in  teaching  to 
have  a  supply  of  prepared  specimens,  which  can  be 
mounted  by  the  teacher  much  more  cheaply  than  they  can 
be  purchased,  and,  after  a  little  experience,  will  be  much 
more  satisfactory.  Specimens  should  be  nicely  centred 
upon  glass  slips  three  inches  by  one  inch  in  size,  and  pro- 
tected by  thin  glass  covers,  which  can  be  purchased  in 
shapes  square  or  circular. 

It  is  not  economy  to  use  poor  and  thick  glass  for  either 
slips  or  covers.  The  mounting  medium  will  often  fasten 
the  cover  to  the  slip  sufficiently.  For  added  security  it  is 
well  to  fasten  down  the  edge  of  the  cover  with  asphalt 
varnish,  marine  glue,  or  gold  size,  which  is  much  better 
than  either. 

For  a  mounting  medium  for  tissues  that  are  not  too 
moist,  pure  Canada  balsam  dissolved  in  chloroform  is 
recommended.  As  many  tissues  are  too  moist  for  Canada 
balsam,  it  is  necessary  to  say  that  glycerine-jelly,  which  can 
be  bought  of  any  optician,  is  the  best  for  the  beginner. 


APPENDIX. 


115 


The  amateur  will  find  invaluable  iiints  and  directions 
in  regard  to  work  witli  the  microscope  in  Dr.  J.  G.  Wood's 
little  book,  "  Wonders  of  the  Microscope,"  which  can  be 
bought  for  seventy-five  cents.  Dr.  Carpenter's  work  on 
the  Microscope  contains  very  complete  directions  for 
mounting  every  kind  of  tissue.  To  the  fullest  equii)ment 
and  most  exhaustive  directions  the  novice  must  add  2^citience^ 
and  a  determination  to  make  2)resent  failures  contribute  to 
future  successes. 

Care  of  Michoscope.  The  objectives  and  eye-pieces 
must  be  kept  scrupulously  clean.  The  surfaces  of  the 
lenses  are  clean  when  the  condensed  breath  upon  the 
glasses  almost  instantly  disappears.  Eye-pieces  may  be 
taken  to  pieces,  and  thin  lenses  cleaned  with  a  soft  hand- 
kerchief and  alcohol.  Brush  the  dust  from  your  objec- 
tives with  a  camel's-hair  brush.  Under  no  circumstances 
attempt  to  take  them  to  pieces.  That  is  work  proper  for 
skilled  hands  only.  In  all  work  with  tlie  microscope  be 
neat,  methodical,  and  painstaking. 

G.  N.   CKOSS. 


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Parker  &  Preble's  Hand-Book  of  Latin  Writing. 

Shumway's  Hand-Book  of  Latin  Synonymes. 

Stlckney's  Cicero  De  Natura  Deorum.  TetlOAv's  Inductive  Latin  Lessons 

Tonilinson's  Manual  for  the  Study  of  Latin  Grammar. 

White's  Latin-English  Lexicon;  Latin-English  and  English-Latin  Lexi- 
con ;  English-Latin  Lexicon. 

Whiton's  Six  Weeks'  Preparation  for  Caesar;  Auxilia  Virgiliana. 

Allen's  Medea  of  Euripides. 

Flagg's  Demosthenes,  Anacreontics;   Seven  Against  Thebes. 

Goodwin's  Greek  Grammar;   Greek  Reader;   Greek  Moods  and  Tenses; 

Selections  from  Xenophon  and  Herodotus. 
Goodwin  &  White's  Anabasis  {with  and  without  Vocabulary). 


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Kendrick's  Selections  for  Sight  Reading. 

Keep's  Essential  Uses  of  the  Moods.       Leighton's  New  Greek  Lessons^ 

Jjiddell  &  Scott's  Abridged  and  Unabridged  Greek-English  Lexicons. 

Seymour's  Pindar.  Sidgwick's  Greek  Prose  Composition. 

Tarbell's  Philippics  of  Demosthenes. 

Tyler's  Selections  from  Greek  Lyric  Poets. 

White's  First  Lessons  in  Greek;   Schmidt's  Rhythmic  and  Metric  of  thv- 

Classical  Languages;  Qidipus  Tyrannus  of  Sophocles;  Stein's  Dia 

lect  of  Herodotus. 
Whiton's  'Orations  of  Lysias. 

COLLEGE  SERIES  OF  GREEK  AUTHORS. 

D'Ooge's  Antigone  of  Sophocles.      Dyer's  Apology  and  Crito  of  Plato. 
Humphreys'  Clouds  of  Aristophanes.  Seymour's  Introduction  to  Homer- 

MA  THE 31  A  TICS* 

Barton's  Language  Lessons  in  Arithmetic. 

Byerly's  Differential  Calculus;   Integral  Calculus;   Syllabi. 

Ginu's  Addition  Manual  and  Addition  Tablet. 

Halstead's  Mensuration.  Hardy's  Quaternions. 

Hill's  Geometry  for  Beginners. 

Pierce's  Three  and  Four-place  Logarithms;  Elements  of  Logarithms; 
Tables  of  Integrals. 

Sprague's  Rapid  Addition.  Taylor's  Elements  of  the  Calculus. 

WentAVorth's  Grammar  School  Arithmetic;  Shorter  Course  in  Algebra; 
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Wentworth  &  Hill's  Five-place  Log.  and  Trig.  Tables;  Practical  Arith- 
metic;  Abridged  Practical  Arithmetic;   Exercise  Manuals. 

Wentworth  &  Reed's  Primary  Arithmetic  {702 th  Teacher's  Edition). 

Wheeler's  Plane  and  Spherical  Trigonometry  and  Tables. 

SCIENCE. 

Gage's  Elements  of  Physics. 


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PHILOSOrHY. 

Seelye's  Hickok's  Moral  Science;    Mental  Science. 

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THE  NATIONAL  MUSIC   COURSE  OF   BOOKS  AND   CHARTS. 

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and  Third  bound  together)',  First,  Second,  Third,  and  Fourth 
Charts;  Teachers'  Manuals;  National  Hymn  and  Tune  Book  for 
Female  Voices,  and  for  Mixed  Voices;  Independent  and  Abridged 
Independent  Music  Readers;  Independent  Music  Reader  and 
Hymn  and  Tune  Book  for  Mixed  Voices,  combined. 

Sharland's  Fourth  Reader;   Abriged  Fourth  Reader. 

Eicliberg's  High  School  Readers;   Girls'  High  School  Reader. 

Caswell  &  Ryan's  Time  and  Tune.  Pease's  Singing  Book. 

GEOGRAFHIES,  ETC. 

Hall's  Our  World,  No.  i  and  No.  2.  Fitz's  Globes. 

Johnston's  Targe  Wall  Maps  (50  X  42  inches'). 

3IODERK  LANGUAGES, 

Knapp's  Spanish  Grammar;   Spanish  Readings;    French  Readings. 

MISCELL  ANEO  US. 

Dippold's  Emanuel  Geibel's  Brunhild.     Fisk's  Teacher's  Class-Books. 

Flagg's  Pedantic  Versicles.  Hitchcock's  Gymnastic  Manual. 

Halsey's  Historical  Chart;   Bible  Chart.     J.  B.  G.,  The  Queen  of  Hearts 

Hofniann's  Inaugural  Address. 

Lanman's  Sanskrit  Reader.      {A/so  Text  alone?) 

Leighton's  Harvard  Examination  Papers.         March's  A-B-C  Book. 

Monoyer's  Sight  Test.     (^Revised.)  Perry's  Sanskrit  Reader. 

School  Hygiene.  Stevens's  Yale  Examination  Papers. 

Straight's  True  Aim  of  Industrial  Education. 

Warren's  Ancient  Cosmology.         Whitney's  Sanskrit  Grammar. 


Pull  Descriptive  Catalogue  sent  free  on  Application. 


GINN  &  COMPANY,    Publisliers, 

Boston,  New  York,  and  Chicago. 


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